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ENHANCING PASSIVE COOLING IN HEALTHCARE BUILDINGS USING COURTYARD FORMS IN THE DESIGN OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN HOSPITAL IN KADUNA STATE,NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
Buildings consume more than 40% of primary energy in most countries and healthcare facilities have been identified as one of the highest consumers of energy. These is due to its heavy dependence on HVAC systems for controlling indoor temperatures as well as general operations. It was further observed that the situation is more critical in developing countries like Nigeria, due to insufficiency in power supply, a factor which in turn increases the hospitals running cost. Studies have shown that the situation can be significantly improved by exploring passive means of cooling the buildings such as courtyards. It was also revealed that it’s performance can be improved by giving special consideration to courtyards design variants such as form, aspect ratio, orientation, wall enclosure and elements within it. Hence, the research was aimed at improving passive cooling in hospitals using courtyard forms in the design of a women and children hospital in Kaduna state, Nigeria. This was achieved through qualitative and quantitative methods. A case study was carried out to ascertain the level of applications of courtyard design variants in existing hospitals in the study area. Also base case models were designed using Autodesk Revit architecture to depict existing courtyard scenarios with enclosed and semi enclosed forms. This forms were also varied into different ratios ranging from 1:1.2 to 1:2, the models were subsequently simulated using ECOTECT energy software to record the annual energy load of each model. The results showed that a U shape courtyard of ratio 1:2 in a two storey building in the hot dry climate of Kaduna state can reduce a buildings annual energy consumption by up to 44.03%. It is therefore hoped that designers can adopt these findings in the design of future buildings most especially healthcare facilities with the hope of improving passive cooling as well as providing the
conducive environment necessary to aid faster patient recovery.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page……………………………………………………………………………..…i
DECLERATION…………………………………………………..……………………ii CERTIFICATION……………………………………………….……………………iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………….………………………iv
DEDICATION………………………………………………………………..………. .V
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………….……………vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………..……………VII
LIST OF PLATES……………………………………………………………..……..viii
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………….ix
LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………………….x
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………xi
CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………..……………1
1.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..……………1
1.1 Background of study……………………………………………………..…………1
1.2 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………….3
1.3 Research Aim………………………………………………………………………..3
1.4 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………4
1.5 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………4
1.6 Justification…………………………………………………………………………4
1.7 Scope…………………………………………………………………………….…..5
CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………..6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………..……6
2.1 Concept of Energy Efficiency………………………………………………..…….6
2.2 PASSIVE COOLING STRATEGIES…………………………………………………..……..7
2.2.1 Heat prevention/reduction………………………… …………………….….……..7
2.2.2 Heat modulation…………………………………………………………….…….9
2.2.3 Heat dissipation……………………………………………………………..…….9
2.2.4 Courtyard as a passive cooling strategy……………………………………….….11
2.3 Courtyard Design Variants……………………………………………………….13
2.4 COURTYARD CONFIGURATION…………………………………………………..…….15
2.4.1 Courtyard form………………………………………………………………..….16
2.4.2 Courtyard aspect ratio……………………………………………………………..19
2.4.3 Courtyard orientation……………………………………….………………………22
2.4.4 Natural elements within the courtyard…………………………………………….23
2.4.5 Enclosure surrounding the courtyard………………………………………………24
2.5 THE ROLE OF COURTYARDS IN HOSPITALS…………………………………………….25
2.5.1 BENEFITS OF COURTYARDS IN HOSPITALS……………………………………………..27
2.6.1 Hospital design philosophy……………………………………………………….29
2.6.2 Hospital design goals………………………………………………………………29
2.6.3 Types of Hospitals……………………………………………………………….30
2.6.4 Hospital structure/System………………………………………………………..32
2.6.5 Findings from literature review……………………………………….………….34
CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………….…….36
3.0 METHODOLOGY………………………………………….………………..…….36
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN………………………………………………………………..….36
3.1.1 Case study………………………………………………………………….…….36
3.1.2 Case study selection criteria…………………………………………………..….37
3.1.3 Study population…………………………………………………………………..37
3.1.4 Variables of study………………………………………………………………….37
3.2 Data Collection………………………………………………… …………………38
3.2.1 Visual survey……………………………………………………………………..38
3.3 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………39
3.4 DATA PRESENTATION…………………………………………………………………39
3.4.1 Description………………………………………………………………….…….39
3.4.2 Plates and figures……………………………………………………………….…39
3.4.3 Graphs……………………………………………………………………………39
3.4.4 Charts…………………………………………………………………………….40 CHAPTER FOUR………………………………………………………………….…41
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………………..41
4.1 CASE STUDY ONE: A.B.U.T.H SHIKA, ZARIA, KADUNA STATE………………………41
4.1.2 Background information…………………………………………………………42
4.1.3 Energy consumption at ABUTH Shika…………………………………………..42
4.1.4 Accessibility………………………………………………………………………43
4.1.5 Design Charateristics of ABUTH Shika…………………………………….……44
4.1.6 Courtyard design variants of the Hospital………………………………………..45
4.2 CASE STUDY TWO: GWAMNA AWAN GENERAL HOSPITAL KADUNA…………………..49
4.2.1 Background information………………………………………………….………46
4.2.2 Design chracteristics of Gwamna Awan General Hospital………………….……46
4.2.3 Energy consumption in G.A.G Hospital………………………………………….51
4.2.4 Courtyard design variants in the Hospital………………………………………..51
4.3 Findings from Case Studies……………………………………………………….56
4.4 Simulation of Courtyard Forms with Different Orientations………………….57
4.5 SIMULATION OF COURTYARD FORMS WITH DIFFERENT ASPECT RATIOS…………………59
4.5.1 Ratio (AI) Simulation results……………………………………………………..62
4.5.2 Ratio (AII) Simulation results…………………………………………..………..62
4.5.3 Ratio (AIII) Simulation results…………………………………………………….63
4.5.4 Ratio (AIV) Simulation results………………………………………..…………63
4.5.5 Ratio (V) Simulation results……………………………………………………..64
4.5.6 Ratio (BI) Simulation results…………………………………………………….65
4.5.7 Ratio (BII) Simulation results……………………………………………………66
4.5.8 Ratio (BIII) Simulation results…………………………………………………… 66
4.5.8 Ratio (BIV) Simulation results………………………………………………….. 67
4.5.8 Ratio (BV) Simulation results…………………………………………………… 67
4.6 Findings from Simulated Courtyard Forms……………………………………..68
4.7 Conclusion from Findings……………………………..……………….……….…70
CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………………72
5.0 DESIGN PRELIMINARIES………………………………………………..……72
5.1 Site Location………………………………………………………………………..72
5.2 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA………………………………………………………………73
5.2.1 Location……………………………………………………………………..…..74
5.2.2 Accessibility………………………………………………………………………75
5.2.3 Topography……………………………………………………………………….75
5.2.4 Land mass……………………………………………………………………..…76
5.2.5 Presence of water body………………………………………………………… .76
CHAPTER SIX………………………………………………………………………79
6.0 DESIGN BRIEF………………………………………………………………….79
6.1 Conceptual Development……………………………………………………..…79
6.2 Schedule of Accommodation……………………………………….……………81
6.3 Functional Analysis……………………………………………………………….86
6.4 DEPARTMENT/UNITS…………………………………………………………………87
6.4.1 GOPD (General Outpatients Department) ………………………………………87
6.4.2 Emergency Department…………………………………………………………..88
6.4.3 Laboratories………………………………………………………………………88
6.4.4 Radiology…………………………………………………………………………89
6.4.5 Surgical Department………………………………………………………………89
6.5.6 Pharmaceutical Unit………………………………………………………………89
6.5.7 Patients ward……………………………………………………………………..89
6.5.8 Auxiliary facilities………………………………………………………………..90
6.5 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS……………………………………………………91
6.5.1 Passive cooling approach…………………………………………………………91
6.5.2 User focused design………………………………………………………………91
6.5.3 Future expansion………………………………………………………………….92
6.5.4 Drainage …………………………………………………………………………..92 6.5.5 Construction system………………………………………………………………93
CHAPTER SEVEN……………………………………………………………………95
7.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION…………………95
7.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..95
7.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….,…..96
7.3 Recommendation…………………………………………………………………..97
7.4 Contributions to Knowledge………………………………………………………98 References…………………………………………………………………….………..99
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………..…….105
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Hospitals consume large amounts of energy because of how they are run and the many people that use them. They are open 24 hours a day; thousands of employees, patients, and visitors occupy the buildings daily. As such, sophisticated ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems control the temperatures and air flow in the hospital wards so as to maintain cooling.
In Nigeria, effective healthcare delivery service is a very important and a desirable social service. Efficient healthcare service delivery is heavily dependent on reliable and adequate power supply, However the energy demand of these facilities are hardly met by the national power supply. As a result, most healthcare facilities are heavily dependent on artificial and alternative means of power supply such as diesel and petrol generators.
A factor which places a burden on its daily operational costs (Nwanya, Sam-Amobi, & Ekechukwu, 2016).
The issue of energy efficiency is a call for concern in the world at large most especially in institutional buildings such as Hospitals. While the building sector is responsible for about 40 % of energy use. According to Shchuchenko, Lie and Thorgeirharsem, (2013) Hospitals represent 6 % of the total energy consumption in the public building sector and are one of the most energy intensive building categories. They further opine that; a hospital uses 2.5 times more energy than a similar sized office building.
However, many studies have been conducted on how cooling can be better optimized in hospitals, through passive means such as courtyards. In architectural design and practice, the courtyard is mostly used in buildings in all the climatic regions due to its passive tendencies for low energy consumption in buildings. Its benefits cut across; social, cultural, religious, environmental and even therapeutic reasons (Bulus, Evaluation of courtyard usage and design requirement in residential buildings in Nigeria hot dry climate, 2016).
It has also been observed that in hot climatic regions, courtyard buildings performed more effectively in the reduction of cooling energy loads in buildings. Scholars have conducted studies on courtyard design concepts explaining how the form can be manipulated to act as a microclimate modifier to the built environment. According to Huang, Niu and Chung (2014) the deeper courtyard form will generate more shadow within the courtyard in hot seasons which will have serious influence on its thermal performance, whereas narrow courtyard form will behave well in cold seasons. Manioglu and Ora (2015) further opine that the width to length ratio applied for different courtyard forms has a significant effect on the cooling and heating loads, as well as solar gain. This is due to the W/L ratio effect of courtyard building form which results in low energy requirement for cooling in hot dry climate, in order to minimize the area affected by the solar radiation, compact forms are arranged with courtyards as Building energy loads are influenced also by the courtyard shape and therefore recommend that the heating and cooling loads for different courtyard shapes be evaluated. According to El-Deeb, Sherif and El-Zafarany (2014) in multi storey courtyard buildings, the courtyard results in more height and self-shading on the facades overlooking the courtyard. This will have a direct effect on the energy consumed for cooling and heating, as well as on that consumed by artificial lighting. In a similar view, Markus (2016) stressed that the courtyard form and size have a significant effect on the shading conditions and this also has a major impact on the building cooling loads. The study further added that due to the differences in climatic requirements of diverse climatic regions such as; hot-dry, hot-humid, cold, and temperate climates, detailed simulation studies are required for the appropriate form and size for a particular climatic zone. These studies have shown that the courtyard form and configuration can greatly influence the cooling energy performance of a building and also the combined effect of the building depth surrounding the courtyard has also great effect on the energy consumed for cooling, heating and lighting of a building. Hence the need to explore the passive tendencies of courtyard as a microclimatic modifier
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Hospitals are institutional buildings that use up large amounts of energy for cooling and ventilation through HVAC systems such as fans and air conditions. This is due to its daily activities as well as the need to provide cooling for patients and staffs. The heavy reliance on these mechanical appliances, places a burden on the Hospitals running and operational cost (Nwanya et al, 2016). Studies by Bulus, Hamid and Wah, (2017) on Courtyard as a passive cooling strategy in Buildings have been conducted on how passive strategies such as courtyards can be used to enhance the cooling of buildings, through the courtyards variants such as aspect ratio, form, configuration, as well as orientation. However, architects most times ignore the application of courtyard design variants at the design phase, which leads to undesirable effect such as still airs and air turbulence (Bittencourt
& Peixoto, 2001) and it’s also been found that a study that attempts to find out how cooling can be enhanced in healthcare buildings through courtyard forms in hot dry climate of Kaduna state Nigeria, has not been recorded. It is in line with this that the researcher was motivated to carry out the research.
1.3 RESEARCH AIM
The research aims to find a passive way to enhance cooling in Healthcare Buildings, using courtyard forms in the design of a Women and Children Hospital in hot dry climate of
Kaduna state, Nigeria.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
To ascertain the application of courtyard as a passive cooling strategy in buildings ii. To ascertain the level of application of courtyard design variants for cooling in existing Hospitals in Kaduna State. iii. Determine the most3 efficient courtyard form for cooling in hot dry climate of
Kaduna State through simulation. iv. To utilize the findings in the design of a Proposed Women and Children Hospital in the hot dry climate of Kaduna State.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
What is the effect of courtyard design on passive cooling in Buildings?
What is the level of application of courtyard design on cooling in existing hospitals in Kaduna State?
What is the most effective courtyard form for cooling in Kaduna State?
1.6 JUSTIFICATION
Hospitals consume large amount of energy for cooling in order to provide the conduciveness for patients, staffs and visitors. This results in heavy reliance on alternative power supply such as generators. As a result, increases the daily operational cost of the Hospital. The research will therefore provide a passive alternative to optimize cooling energy in Hospitals through courtyard forms. ii. According to UNICEF Nigeria as cited by Enogholase (2017), every single day, Nigeria loses about 2,300 under-five year olds and 145 women of childbearing age. This makes the country the second largest contributor to the under-five and maternal mortality rate in the world. Similarly, it was revealed that a woman’s chance of dying from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in 13. Although many of these deaths are preventable. It has also been observed that the coverage
and quality of health care services in Nigeria continue to fail women and children.
Presently, less than 20 per cent of health facilities offer emergency obstetric care. Inadequate health facilities have been blamed as one of the major factors plaguing the health of Women and Children in Nigeria, most especially in the North-east and North-west geopolitical zone where the situation is recorded to be more critical. It is hence paramount to provide a Women and Children Hospital to meet the ever growing needs of Women and Children healthcare in Nigeria.
1.7 SCOPE
The scope of the research will be limited to healthcare facilities in Kaduna State metropolis, Nigeria. With a special focus on the courtyards form and aspect ratio as well as its usage as a passive cooling strategy. The research will also emphasis on the pediatric and maternity units of the Hospital. The design phase shall also in cooperate care givers accommodation to promote healing.
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