CARDIAC MONITOR

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CARDIAC MONITOR

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The human heart pumps blood by the contraction and relaxation of the heart. Specifically, a small group of specialized muscle cells located in the upper right-hand corner of the right atrium (upper part of the heart) called sinoatrial (SA) node. Cells in the SA node generate their electrical signals more frequently than cells elsewhere in the heart. On the other hand, the ventricle which is the lower part of the heart pumps blood with much more force because of the thick muscle which it’s walls are composed of. Both the atrium and the ventricle perform their operations with the help of cells. These atrium cells in the cause of discharging their duties generate electrical signals which is passed through the help of some connected tissues partitioned by a small bridge of muscle called the atrio-ventricular conduction system down to the ventricle. The delay (lag time) between the signals reaching the ventricle is about two-tenth of a second. This delay allows time for the blood in the artria to empty into the ventricle before the ventricle begins contracting.

It is therefore paramount to note that the atrium and the ventricle do not pump blood simultaneously but take turns to do so. The activities of cells in the heart can be monitored by a heartbeat monitor called an Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). Electrocardiogram is derived from the Greek word “electro” for “electric”; “kardio” for “heart” and “graph” for “to write”) and the German word “electrocardiogram”. An ECG machine is used to detect and record electrical activity for diagnostic purposes. An ECG records the heart’s own electrical impulses to create an electrocardiograph, a reading that helps physicians learn more about the heart. It is important to note that the ECG is not a form of treatment but allows physicians diagnose heart diseases by taking a close look at the heart and its activities.

An electrocardiogram can:

i) Evaluate damaged and diseased tissue or other physical irregularities.

ii) Monitor any surgical repairs, pacemakers, or effects of drugs used to treat existing heart conditions.

iii) Determine whether the heart is performing normally or suffering from abnormalities (extra or skipped heartbeats cardiac arrhythmia).

iv) Indicate acute or previous damage to heart muscle (heart attack).

v) Be used for detecting potassium, calcium, magnesium and other electrolyte disturbances.

vi) Allow the detection of conduction abnormalities (heart block). vii) Suggest non-cardiac disease (pulmonary embolism).

The ECG records electrical activity by the aid of electrodes that are connected at strategic points on the body of the patient. These strategic placements which give the readings are recorded in pairs and these pairs are called leads. There are 3 types of leads which are 3-lead, 6-lead and 12-lead.

Each lead views the heart from a different angle. 3 and 6-lead ECGs, record limited heart activity, and are primarily used to monitor a patient’s heart during surgery, and can be used to diagnose early heart conditions. 12-lead machines look at the heart from twelve different angles and provide the type of readings necessary to diagnose and monitor patients with advanced heart conditions [4].

In a 12-lead ECG, six electrodes are attached to the skin on the chest around the heart. Four more electrodes are added, one on each arm and leg. The ten electrodes combine in twelve different ways to read twelve different angles on the heart.

When the heart depolarizes which occurs when the heart muscle which is negative at rest moves closer to a neutral charge with each heartbeat, the electrodes sense the tiny electrical impulses on the skin that are created as a result. The impulses travel back to the machine where they are interpreted and printed on a graph.

A healthy heart will print out an orderly wave of progression with each heartbeat, while a heart with diseased or damaged tissue will show certain irregularities in the heart’s rhythm, size, or position.

1.2 The normal ECG

A typical ECG tracing of a normal heartbeat consists of a P wave, a QRS complex and a T wave.

Axis: The axis is the general direction of the electrical impulse through the heart. It is usually directed to the bottom left.

P wave: The P wave is the electrical signature of the current that causes atrial (top chamber of the heart) contraction. Both the left and right atria contract simultaneously.

Fig. 1: Drawing of the EKG, with Labels of Intervals; P=P Wave, PR=PR Segment, QRS=QRS Complex, QT=QT Interval, ST=ST Segment, T=T Wave [5].

QRS: The QRS complex corresponds to the current that causes contraction of the left and right ventricles, causing a greater

ECG deflection due to more muscle mass.

The Q wave, when present, represents the small horizontal (left to right) current as the action potential travels through the inter-ventricular (lower chamber of the heart) septum.

The R and S waves indicate contraction of the myocardium (the thickest muscular wall of the heart around the ventricle where the pressure is greatest).

T wave: The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles, which is when the heart muscles go back to their negative state at rest after a heartbeat. The QRS complex usually obscures the atrial repolarization wave so that it is not usually seen. In most leads, the T wave is positive. Negative T waves can be signs of diseases; however an inverted T wave is common amongst black people.

The ST segment connects the QRS complex and the T wave.

An ECG is not usually performed as a preventative measure that is prior to any symptoms of possible heart conditions, it is only utilized to diagnose or rule out the presence of diseases, disorders, and other irregularities. ECG machines are often found in general practice clinics, as well as in ambulances, emergency rooms, hospitals, and cardiology centers [5]. Strong indications have emerged that people in under-developed countries are now at great risk of developing cardiovascular (heart) diseases which currently accounts for one-third of all deaths worldwide. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is an umbrella term that refers to any of a number of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels [7]. Electrocardiographs (results of ECG analysis) are usually complex and can only be interpreted by medical practitioners. This leaves the patients in the dark regarding the meaning of their ECG results. Also, most ECG machines print out the result in a sinusoidal wave form on a special tracing paper which makes subsequent accessibility rather tedious and traditional.

Consequently, the need for a device that addresses this issue is needed hence the birth of this project. The aim of this project is to provide the average person suffering from a heart condition with a portable device that can be used to monitor the heart, with results that are easily understandable to the patient and a form of storage for perusal later and analysis by medical personnel. Objectives of this project are to reduce the size of the heartbeat monitoring device currently available and making it more portable, furthermore, interpreting results to an extent and making it easily understood by non-medical personnel (layman), also to provide storage for heartbeat readings on the device which when connected to a computer system, can be analyzed by a doctor or printed for documentation.

AN OPTIMISATION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY COMPOSITION FOR ENHANCED MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Abstract:

Aluminium alloys are widely used in various industries due to their lightweight nature and excellent mechanical properties. This study focuses on the optimization of aluminium alloy composition to achieve enhanced mechanical properties, including strength, hardness, and ductility. The research employs a systematic approach involving the design of experiments, material testing, and statistical analysis to identify the optimal combination of alloying elements.

The experimental design includes varying concentrations of key alloying elements such as copper, magnesium, and zinc. Mechanical tests, including tensile testing, hardness testing, and impact testing, are conducted on the alloy specimens to assess their performance under different compositions. Statistical tools and optimization algorithms are employed to analyze the experimental data and identify the alloy composition that yields the best overall mechanical properties.

The objectives of the study are to (1) investigate the individual and interactive effects of alloying elements on mechanical properties, (2) identify the optimal composition for achieving high strength, hardness, and ductility, and (3) contribute to the development of advanced aluminium alloys with superior mechanical performance.

The findings of this research are expected to provide valuable insights for material scientists, engineers, and industries involved in the manufacturing of lightweight and high-performance materials. The optimized aluminium alloy composition can lead to improved structural materials for applications in aerospace, automotive, and other industries where enhanced mechanical properties are crucial.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Aluminium alloys stand as crucial materials in modern engineering due to their exceptional combination of strength, lightness, and corrosion resistance. Their widespread application in aerospace, automotive, and structural industries underscores the need for continuous improvement in their mechanical properties. One promising avenue for enhancing these properties is the systematic optimization of aluminium alloy compositions. This research delves into the intricacies of alloy design to achieve superior mechanical performance, encompassing increased strength, hardness, and ductility.

Aluminium alloy is a highly valued primary material in various industries due to its exceptional properties, such as high strength-to-light weight ratio, low density, high corrosion resistance, high ductility, and good thermal and electrical conductivity [1]. However, the mechanical and tribological properties of aluminium and its alloys have certain limitations, which can hinder their effectiveness in certain applications. To overcome these limitations, researchers have developed aluminium metal matrix composites (AMMCs) by reinforcing aluminium with ceramic or metallic particulates, fibers, or whiskers [2]. AMMCs are gaining worldwide popularity due to their superior properties compared to aluminium alloys. As a result, they are becoming an attractive material for advanced applications in various fields, including aerospace, automobile, railway, sports, marine, chemical, and general engineering [3]. In the field of AMMCs, current research is focused on altering the physical and mechanical properties of the material by incorporating insoluble reinforcement particles into the matrix. AMMCs are fabricated using either solid-state or liquid-state processes. Stir casting is the most prevalent liquid state procedure for manufacturing AMMCs. It is simple to use, inexpensive, flexible, and use for mass production [4], [5], [6]. Powder metallurgy is the most common solid-state method, although it is more expensive than stir casting. Other, less common methods include compo-casting, squeeze casting, friction stir processing, and spray casting [7], [8], [9]. Synthetic ceramic particulates, agro-waste, and industrial waste products are three basic categories of reinforcing materials employed in the development of AMMCs [10]. Synthetic ceramic reinforcements, including alumina (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), boron carbide(B4C), titanium carbide (TiC), tungsten carbide (WC), silica (SiO2), carbon nanotube (CNT), and graphite, etc. have been the primary focus of most investigations aimed at improving the mechanical properties and structural integrity of AMMCs [11]. Although synthetic reinforcements can enhance composite performance, they tend to increase weight and cost. Hence, there is a growing interest in developing composites that incorporate low-cost, lightweight, readily available, and environmentally sustainable materials, such as agro wastes and industrial wastes [12]. The incorporation of industrial and agro wastes, such as fly ash, quarry dust, red mud, rice husk ash, coconut shell ash, and bamboo leaf ash, in AMMCs is an important step towards sustainable and eco-friendly practices, with a focus on recycling and conservation [5], [13], [14].

Researchers are committed to producing quality materials at a low cost to meet global demands. To this end, they are exploring ways to develop high-performance materials while minimizing expenses. Recycling is an attractive solution as it allows the use of waste that would otherwise harm the environment by being discarded in landfills or other improper locations [15], [16]. Utilizing low-cost industrial and agro waste as reinforcement in hybrid aluminium composites is an effective way to achieve desired properties over single reinforced composites [17], [18]. Aluminium production is both costly and energy-intensive, with a significant percentage of production costs attributed to electricity consumption [19]. To offer a more environmentally friendly and economical approach, researchers have explored using scrap aluminium alloy wheels as a matrix material to produce AMMCs [9], [20].

The rise of aluminium can packages has led to environmental issues, as improper disposal of empty cans is causing pollution and litter on streets and in drainages. This can lead to blockages, waterlogging, disease outbreaks, and in extreme cases, flooding that can claim lives [21]. Recycled aluminium can composite materials that suit industrial and commercial mechanical criteria are lacking in research. By using scrap aluminium cans as the matrix material, the current approach is eco-conscious and sustainable in the production of AMMCs.

Granite powder is a by-product of the crushing or cutting of granite rocks. Granite powder waste deposits have grown in recent years, even though this material currently has no substantial application. Granite powder waste has become a potentially harmful environmental issue. Studies have found that it contains around 80–85 wt% of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), indicating its potential as a reinforcing material [22], [23]. Literature studies reveal B4C as a standout highly promising ceramic material for use in synthetic reinforcement applications. This is due to its exceptional strength, low density of 2.52 g/cm3, remarkable hardness, and outstanding chemical stability [24], [25], [26]. The investigation of AMMCs incorporating waste materials for both the matrix and reinforcement has been limited, indicating a need for further research in this area.

The current study aims to address solid waste management and environmental issues through sustainable composite manufacturing, using a rare combination of Granite powder and Boron Carbide reinforcement with scrap aluminum cans via a two-step stir casting technique. Mono composite-Aluminium + Granite particles (AG) and hybrid composite -Aluminium + Granite particles + Boron Carbide (AGB) was developed to examine the impact of Granite powder and B4C on the microstructure, mechanical and wear properties, as well as to assess the fracture behaviour of composites. The optical microscope (OM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis are used to assess the distribution of reinforcements, the presence of compounds and elements in the matrix and to identify the material crystalline structure. This study examines the potential of utilizing scrap aluminium cans as a matrix material and granite particles as a reinforcement to develop AMMCs with improved mechanical strength and wear resistance.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

While aluminium alloys are renowned for their favorable attributes, there exists a perpetual pursuit for alloys with even better mechanical properties. The challenge lies in identifying the optimal combination of alloying elements that can synergistically enhance the overall performance of the material. This study addresses this gap by employing a systematic approach to optimize the composition of aluminium alloys, paving the way for materials with superior mechanical characteristics.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The primary objectives of this research are:

1.3.1 To investigate the individual and interactive effects of alloying elements on the mechanical properties of aluminium alloys.

1.3.2 To identify the optimal composition of aluminium alloys that maximizes strength, hardness, and ductility.

1.3.3 To contribute to the advancement of aluminium alloy technology by providing a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between composition and mechanical performance.

1.4 Research Questions

This study seeks answers to the following research questions:

1.4.1 What are the individual effects of alloying elements such as copper, magnesium, and zinc on the mechanical properties of aluminium alloys?

1.4.2 How do these alloying elements interact to influence the overall mechanical performance of aluminium alloys?

1.4.3 What is the optimal composition of aluminium alloys that results in superior strength, hardness, and ductility?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The findings of this research hold significance for both academia and industry. Academically, the study contributes to the body of knowledge in materials science, offering insights into the intricate relationship between alloy composition and mechanical properties. Industrially, the optimized aluminium alloy composition emerging from this research can lead to the development of advanced materials with enhanced mechanical performance. Such materials have the potential to revolutionize various sectors, including aerospace, automotive, and structural engineering.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study encompasses the systematic optimization of aluminium alloy compositions for enhanced mechanical properties. The research involves a detailed examination of the effects of alloying elements, and the experimental work includes material testing such as tensile testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. However, limitations may arise from the complexity of alloy interactions and the practical constraints associated with material testing procedures.

1.7 Research Methodology

To achieve the objectives of this study, a comprehensive research methodology will be employed. This will involve a systematic review of existing literature on aluminium alloys, the design of experiments to explore various alloy compositions, and extensive material testing to evaluate mechanical properties. Statistical tools and optimization algorithms will be utilized to analyze the experimental data and identify the optimal alloy composition.

1.8 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis is organized into several chapters to provide a coherent structure for presenting the research. Chapter Two reviews relevant literature on aluminium alloys, highlighting key concepts, previous research, and current challenges. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology, detailing the experimental design, materials, and testing procedures. Chapter Four presents the data analysis and results of the study. Chapter Five discusses the findings in the context of existing knowledge and proposes recommendations for future research. The conclusion in Chapter Six summarizes the key insights and contributions of the study.

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