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THE YORUBA CONCEPTION OF A PERSON AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON FATALISM, DETERMINISM AND HUMAN DESTINY
ABSTRACT
The Yoruba conception of a human person is usually seen in the light of hard determinism and sometimes fatalism. Yoruba statements such as “Ayanmo o gbogun” confirms this. This study is an examination of this assumption. The study examines some scholar’s account of the Yoruba conception of a person in lieu of freewill, determinism and fatalism. The study will be structured into three chapters. In chapter one of this study, I will examine the Yoruba conception of a person. I will be examining different philosophers and scholar’s perspective on the discourse. I will attempt to compare and contrast their views on the Yoruba conception of a person. In chapter two of the study, I will examine the notions of freewill, determinism, fatalism and human destiny in relation to the Yoruba conception of a person. I will attempt to argue that these notions occupy a center stage in the discussion of a Yoruba conception of a person. Chapter three of this study will explore the possibility of reconciling soft determinism and hard determinism in the Yoruba conception of a person by refuting the arguments given by hard determinists. This essay will conclude that contrary to the popular opinion that the concept of “ori” leads to hard determinism or fatalism, it is more compatible with soft-determinism.
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LANGUAGE ATTITUDES AMONG TEENAGERS AND ITS EFFECT: A CASE STUDY OF TEENAGERS IN UYO
ABSTRACT
This work seeks to explain the attitudes exhibited by teenagers in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State to their Ibibio language. Most work done in this field is centered on language loss/death. Therefore, this work will be concerned on the attitudes exhibited by teenagers to their Ibibio Language vis-à-vis English and pidgin and its effect. The framework of this research is based on socio-linguistics approach of Baker (1992) in his work titled: Attitudes and Language. This study is divided into five (5) chapters; chapter one is basically an introduction of the research to be carried out. Chapter two is the reviewing of relevant and related literatures, chapter three deals with sources of data collection such as questionnaires only. Chapter four highlights on language attitude among teenagers in Uyo and its effect (a brief discussion), and findings, while chapter five is conclusion and recommendations of the research, including references and appendix.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
In the time past, language attitudes have been analyzed and debated upon with respect to how languages can be endangered, and how they can die. The two main points to be considered in this research are: attitude and language, and how teenagers manipulate them. Attitude is defined as the way that one thinks and feels about somebody or something, the way that one behaves towards somebody or something that shows how one thinks and feels. While language is defined as the system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country. Also, another dictionary definition of language is a particular style of speaking or writing. So for the purpose of further development and preservation of the Ibibio Language, this research is going to be concerned with the behaviour exhibited by teenagers In Uyo, Akwa Ibom State particularly those in the Uyo Local Government Area of the State to their indigenous language
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Most language users do not see the language that they speak as a definition of their race, their culture, and their personality. Negligence, ignorance and quest to follow the current trend have left Africans in general and Nigerians in particular far from their root – their source/who they really are. So, in this research, ways in which we have drifted from our culture (through the embracing of a foreign language) are being elaborated upon, and suggestions on how to re-position our attitude to our indigenous language are made explicit.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
The study sought to evaluate the effect of language attitudes among teenagers. Specifically, the study sought to;
1. To evaluate why teenagers behave the way they do to language.
2. To determine what influence and inform the behaviour so exhibited to language.
3. To find out the effect of their behaviour on their indigenous language.
4. To proffer possible solutions aimed at internalizing the language in the minds of these teenagers thereby preserving the language.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Why do teenagers behave the way they do to language?
2. What influences and inform the behaviour so exhibited to language?
3. What is the effect of their behaviour on their indigenous language?
4. What possible solutions are available aimed at internalizing the language in the minds of these teenagers thereby preserving the language?
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In analyzing various related texts in relation to this field, a socio-linguistic method of approach is used in examining the behaviour or attitudes exhibited by teenagers in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State to their indigenous language vis-à-vis English and pidgin. Also, questionnaires are used in the observation of their attitude to language as a means of data collection.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
1.7 SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study “language attitudes among teenagers and its effects” is a study of how language is being approached and manipulated by teenagers in Uyo district of Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, for their day-to-day interaction, fellowship and relationship.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
Financial constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).
Time constraint: The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.
1.8 Definition of Terms
Language: The method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
Teenager: A teenager, or teen, is a person who falls within the ages of 13 to 18 years old. The word “teenager” is another word for an adolescent.
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ASPECTS OF NOUN BURA NOUN PHRASE
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
This research work is based on the aspects of noun Bura noun phrase. The study forms an important aspect of the syntax of the language. By syntax, we mean the branch of linguistic analysis which involves the arrangement of words to form grammatical sentences a rule governed way. It should be noted that there are many aspects of syntax, but this research will focus on the noun phrase of Bura language.
A phrase could be described as group of words that forms an integral part a sentence. There are different types of phrasal categories, for example Noun, Verb, Prepositional, Adverbial, Adjectival phrases etc. Each phrasal category is named after the lexical category that heads the phrase. For instance, a verb heads a verb phrase, a preposition heads a prepositional phrase.
In this chapter, we will carry out a survey of the historical background of the language, sociolinguistic profile under which we shall describe the occupation, marriage, religion, festivals, culture and beliefs, language status and the genetic classification of the language. Government and Binding theory is used as a theoretical frame work the analysis of the study.
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The pabir and bura are ethnically different, but both speak the bura language. They are the major tribes Biu and Askira L.G.A’S of Borno state and Gombi L.G.A of Adamawa state. The population of bura people in Borno state is about 230,000 and there are about 46,000 speakers of the language in Adamawa state.(.N.P.C 2005).
The Bura’s lived north of Biu before being attacked by yata-ra-wara around the 16th century. The few people yamta brought with him intermarried with the Bura’s and built the Biu dynasty into a kingdom. Those descendants of yamta’s group were called Pabir or (babur),this is why the Pabir and Bura’s differ considerably in culture appearance until today, The Pabir are the ruling class among e Bura people and the Bura villages pay tribute to the Emir of Biu, the Bura’s still resent the Pabirs.
1.2 SOCIOCULTURAL PROFILE
The following could be observed among the Bura’s. The language bura is seen means of communication in the market and is also used in teaching in primary schools. The Bura’s found in Biu and Askira L.G.A’S in Borno state and Gombi L.G.A in Adamawa state. Their main language is Bura but they also speak Hausa, Chibok, Fulfude and a few speak Marghi.
1.2.1CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
The Bura people did not circumcised their boys until the practice was introduced around the 1920’s. Boys are circumcised around the age of 7. When a female child is born, a suitor may propose by throwing a leafy branch of a certain tree in her mother’s kut. If he is accepted, he gives gifts as the girl grows up. He works on her father’s farm and makes zana matting for them. When she reaches marriage age he captures her and bring her to his house, then the remaining part of the bride price is settled and arrangements for the marriage ceremony are concluded.
The bride is usually expected to produce a white cloth stained with the proof of her virginity and it may be displayed with pride, her parents will be ashamed if she is not a virgin.
Another form of courtship/marriage is for a boy to look over the girls while they are collecting firewood or fetching water, when he sees the one he likes he asks her to marry him and if she agrees, he gets about 8 or 10 strong fellows to capture her and bring her to his house then the marriage ceremony is arranged. As a sign of respect, a man does not eat with his parents-in-laws, when an old person dies he/she is buried on the second day, when everyone has gathered in the evening. The grave is wide circular shaft at the top, about knee deep then a smaller round shaft is dug from the bottom of this into a loor of cavity. There is a traditional dancing for seven days after the burial, and if the deceased was an important person it last 14days, during which rituals are performed. There is dancing with beating of drum and things belonging to the deceased that show who he was are displayed, such as his/her tools and weapons. This is done till date, sometimes professional mourners are invited on one of the mourning days, the Fuinchambwi dance is done. The male dancers jump from the roof of the hut of the deceased back again until the roof destroyed. After this the date is fixed for the last mourning or sadaka, which is held about 6 months later but usually during dry season.
1.2.2 CHIEFTANCY
Originally the Bura’s had no central government, now the Emir of Biu appoints the district heads (Ajia) who then approve he appointments of the village heads (Lawans). Today both titles belong to certain families. The village heads appoints the ward heads (Bulamas) over small villages and wards of larger ones. Anyone who has leadership ability ca chosen as a Bulama.
1.2.3 RELIGION
The Bura had their traditional religion before Islam came around 1920 and Christianity later in the 1920’s.Today these three religions can found among the Bura’s.
In traditional religion the Supreme Being is called Hyel or Hyel-taku, they approach Hyel through Haptu. Hyel they claim created everything, but a Haptu is a personal god who takes care of the individual. The Haptu have shrines where people worship and offer sacrifices. The gods are represented by various objects such as water (a lake or river), stones, mountains or forest. Usually there is an attendant or priiest through whom consultations is made of the Haptu. Most sacrifices are on saturdays so it is a special day. some gods are for particular clans, and there is no unified form of traditional religion for the whole tribe. One of the Haptu(gods) is Dlaminpr Kampeka,a large being living in space. His chief priest is called Mthakur Haptu, there is a Mthakur Haptu in each village.
The most common of the gods is represented by a covered pot kept by a family head. At the beginning end of the dry season in times of stress, he offers a chicken to the pot for the health of his household. The practice of traditional religion has now largely disintegrated before Islam and Christianity. However witchcraft is still done. The belief that ancestors becomes when they die and still influence what happens in the world has not really died out.
The total number of Bura Christians is under 60, 000, the percentage of Christians is actually less than 20%, though more may be nominal adherents. A rough estimate of the religious percentage is as follows: Muslims-78%, Christians-20%, Traditionalists-2%.
There is a certain amount of understanding between the Muslims and Christians which prevents too much religious tension in the tribe, but this does mean Muslims do not persecute relatives converted to Christianity.
1.2.4 OCCUPATION
The people of Bura are mainly agriculturalists as they engage themselves in planting of crops like maize, guinea corn, groundnut and rice. Among them there are also weavers, fishermen, hunters, woodcarvers etc.
Fig. 1.2.4 Fishing Occupation of Bura People
1.2.5 FESTIVAL
Since the Bura people are mainly engaged in farming all their festivals are farming related, as they organize harvest festivals before fresh harvests are eaten.
An example is the maize harvest festival performed before fresh corn can be eaten, it is believed that it is sacriligious to eat an harvest before the harvest festival, hence all farmers adhere to this law.
Fig. 1.2.5 Maize Harvest Festival of Bura People
1.2.6 CULTURE
The bura people have a rich culture, preserved and handed down from generation to generation. They are simple country people, they believe in justice, modesty, equity and fairness. They are accommodating and live in peace with their neighbours. Talking about their mode of greeting they greet more or less like Hausa’s they bend down or kneel down to greet each other.
1.3 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Africa fig. 1.3
Afro-Asiatic
Egyptian Semitic Cushitic Omitic Berber Chadic
West Chadic Biu Mandara East Chadic Masa
Tera group Kotoko group Bura group Tligi group Mandara group Matakaru group Bata group Suko group
Chibak Kiba Bura (pabir) Kiba Mangi Putai
Source: Comrie, B. (1987).
1.4 SCOPE AND ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
This research will focus its attention the Noun phrase of Bura language. This work aims at giving a detail syntactic analysis of the Noun of Bura language.
This work attempts to discuss the arrangement or combination of words to form phrases, clauses and sentences in Bura. This description will also focus and some of the peculiar features of the language.
This research work consist of five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introductory aspect of the work, that is the sociolinguistic profiles of the dialect, its historical background, socio-cultural profile, genetic classification, scope and organization of the study, theoretical framework. The second chapter centers on the basic syntactic concepts, where we intend to analyze the phrase structure rules as well as the lexical categories and sentence types based on Government and Binding theory.
The third chapter will examine the noun phrase of Bura, areas as noun phrase position, noun phrase function, complementizers and the noun phrase construction.
The chapter four centers on all the levels of linguistics analysis in the language, that is the transformation processes. Chapter five will present the summary as well as the conclusion on the entire work.
1.5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical framework adopted in this work Government and Binding theory(G.B theory). This Government and Binding theory was proposed by an American linguist named Noam Chomsky in (1981),as a reaction to transformational generative grammar to account for all and only the representations that underline the grammatical sentence in a language.
Government and Binding theory is modular deductive theory of grammar. Proponents of G.B often maintained that there is no such thing as roles of language. But only the principles and parameters whose values can only vary from one language to the other do exist with specified units.
Chomsky (1995:15-16) remarks as follows, ‘The principles and parameters approach held that language have no rule in anything like familiar sense transformation and no theoretically significant grammatical construction, except taxonomic artifacts’. There are universal participles and finite array of options as to how such principles apply (parameter) but no language particular roles.
It is also worthy to note that though Government and Binding theory is a common label of this model of syntax, it is misleading because it gives undue prominence to the two elements of Government and Binding, whose status was not fundamentally superior to the other sub-theories like x-bar, theta, case e.t.c. Hence, the ‘principles and parameters theory has come to be seen as a closer to it essence.
1.5 DATA COLLECTION
The method employed for data collection is the bilingual elicitation approach, involving English and Bura language. The data were elicited with the use of the Ibadan four hundred wordlist, which consist of basic list simple words.
Apart from the 400 wordlist, phrases and sentences in English were translated to Bura, by a Bura native speaker. The data collected were subjected to analysis.
Oral interviews were conducted in English language and answers were given in Bura language by my informant. The answers to this questions were used in the syntactic analysis of Bura language.
Below are the full details of my informant
Name: Abdulahi Ahmed
Age: 42 years old.
My informant is a native speaker of Bura language.He is from Gombi local government area in Adamawa state. My informant speaks the following language: English, Hausa and Bura.
But due to the busy schedule of my informant at the time in which this research work is been carried out was unable to provide all required informations needed to complete this work, hence additional information was seeked by the researcher online leading to the discovery of a Bura dictionary prepared following a workshop in Jos, 24-25 April, 2009 and represents a major shift in terms of orthography and definitions etc. as prepared by Roger blench of www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm E-mail trogerblench@yahoo.co.uk
1.7 DATA ANALYSIS
In this research work,the data was collected form my informant both in writing and recording an audio cassette then the analysis of the data collected was carried out using Government and Binding theory of syntax as proposed by Chomsky (1986). This research work will be
limited to the aspect of noun phrase.The informant used was fluent in the language, his fluency and competence formed the basis of his choice as my informant.
1.8 BRIEF REVIEW OF CHOSEN FRAMEWORK
Government and Binding theory refers to theory of syntax propounded by Chomsky (1981,1982,1986). This theory is a radical revision of his earlier (1965,1987) theories was revised in a minimalist programme for linguistic theory (1993).
The name refers to central sub theories of the theory. Government can be referred to as an abstract syntactic relation and Binding deal with the referents or pronoun R-expression.
G.B was the first to be base on the principle and parameters mode of language, which also underlines the later development of the minimalist programme. Government and Binding is a theory of universal grammar, which is one system of all the principle that are common to all human languages (Haegeman 1991:13) It is otherwise known as principle and parameter the in the sense that .GB, the grammar is a continuos interaction between components and sub theories embedding different principles and parameters (cook 1988:31). It has two levels of representation related by transformation rule move alpha.
Move alpha is stipulated by movement, that is the syntactic level is elaborated by the concept of movement (cook 1988:30). G.B requires two levels of syntactic representation. The deep structure (D-structure) which is the level at which we obtain all information on the words and their combination, it consists of base rules, lexical rules, strict sub-categorization, selectional restrictions, phrase structure rules (yusuf 1997:68).
It is the level at which elements in the sentence are in their original location (cook 1988:30).
We also have the surface structure level ( S-structure) which is the level at which some components in the sentence have been moved. The s-structure is clearly generated from the D-structure by the application of movement rules. There is relationship between deep structure and the surface structure, they are related by movement.
1.9 THE SUB-THEORIES OF G.B
Chomsky postulates a set of interacting sub-theories each of which deals with some control area of grammatical enquiry. Each of these may be subject to parametric variation. That is to say, it is assumed that the grammar of languages vary in only finitely many ways with respect the domain covered by sub-theory. All these -theories of G.B theory operates in a modular form, this theory itself is referred to as modular deductive theory of grammar. The sub-theory assumed are the following.
i. X- bar theory
ii. Theta theory
iii. case theory
iv. Binding theory
v. Bounding theory
vi. Control theory
vii. Government theory
1.9.1 X-BAR THEORY
X-Bar syntax replaces large numbers of idiosyncratic rules with general principles. It captures properties of all phrases and its bases on lexicon. The principle is that a phrase always contains a head of the same type.
It defines the possible phrase structure configuration of language in general. The control notion is that each of the major lexical categories (Noun, Verb, Preposition and Adjectives), is the head of structure is dominated by a (phrase, Verb: verb phrase e.t.c) for example Noun phrase (NP) is headed by a Noun. It comes after possible constituents in the example below.
‘That house’
NP Fig. 1.9.1
Spec N’
Det N
That house
X-bar encompasses projection principle which shows how head moves to its maximal projection. It projects the characteristics of lexical entries into the syntax which link the D-structure to S-structure an LF to the lexicon by specifying the possible context in which a particular lexical item can occur projection from the head to the maximal is shown below.
XP- Maximal projection
X’- Intermediate
X – The head
All NPs have the same two bar level structures even if specifiers and complementizers are not actually present putting the levels of specifier and complement together, the structure of a phrase consist of two levels, arbituary using particular specifier and complement positions.
X” Fig. 1.9.1.2
Specified X’
X Complement
G.B claims that these two level are necessary for all types of phrase. X-bar theory proposes that all phrase in al langu
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ASPECTS OF NEGATION IN KOENOEM LANGUAGE
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
This research is aimed at describing aspects of negation in Koenoem language. Koenoem language is a language spoken in Shendam Local Government Area of Plateau State of Nigeria.
In this chapter, we discussed the general background and socio – cultural profile of the Koenoem people. The genetic classification of Koenoem language as well as the aim and objectives of the research is discussed. We also included the scope and organization of the study.
1.2 Historical Background of Koenoem People
A popular legend of the Koenoem claimed that they were influenced by the attempt to link their origin to the universal respective and centers of old civilization. This legend claimed that they migrated from France to their present location for economic reason.
Koenoem means “to refuse”, the reason why this utterance was rendered by the Koenoem speaking people was that there was a river dividing them with their neighbouring village, and the river belonged to them i.e. the Koenoem. Inspite of that their neighbouring villages were claming ownership because of the immense benefit from the river.
The Koenoem people because of this mess said they would not fold their arms and watched them; they presented all their problems to their ancestors to fight for them. As a result of this new born babies immediately after given birth to, will be strike to death by thunder from no where. When the villagers got to realized that all the happenings was as a result of their selfish interest, they call a meeting and resolve the issue immediately and handed over the land to the Koenoem people and that is why in both Shendam and Mikang land, today don’t take this Koenoem for granted.
1.3 Geographical Location of Koenoem People
Koenoem people are located in northern part of Shendam Local Government Areas of Plateau State and Eastern part of Mikang Local Government Area of Plateau State. The Koenoem village was formally a ward under shendam province and later relocated to Mikang Local Government Area. The major towns around Koenoem are: Doka, Zomo and Piapun.
1.4 Socio – Cultural Profile of Koenoem People
Cultural is defined as a total way of life of a group of people in a geographical setting. Keonoem people have their district cultural and traditional beliefs which are expressed in their mode of dressing, occupation, religion, festivals and marriage system.
Marriage System in Koenoem
The Koenoem people have their culture, norms, and values. When it comes to marriage the person who wants to marry pay a specific amount of money and some traditional items for the kinsmen before contacting the father of the girl for bride price. The amount paid for bride price is not always much that is why they marry many wives.
The first step to marriage is to pay some certain amount of money and some items, other material things such as rappers shingginda, millet for local brint beer to the elders of the family. The second step is the bride going to the groom’s farm to check his capability whether is capable of taking care of the wife he intends to marry. If the groom is capable they move to the third step which is the introduction of the two families to each other and after that the proper marriage.
In Koenoem land divorce does not take much time, they believe if a woman leaves a man the more he brings in another one to replace her. Some divorce are made in the court of law through the chief judge pronouncement and others in a traditional way, where the two families come together and settle amicably by paying back what they collected from the grooms family.
Occupation of Koenoem People
The major occupation of Koenoem people is farming. Majority of the people are subsistence farmers though commercial farming is also practiced. They cultivate crops like maize, millet, guinea com, groundnut and rice as well. After harvesting all these crops, buyers come from urban centre and buy at the cheapest price and take it to the city.
Religion of Koenoem People
In Koenoem land the three (3) religions are observed i.e. Christianity, Traditional and Islamic religions. Christianity dominates followed by traditional religion then Islamic religion. Most of the people practicing Islamic religion are indigenes of the land. The general language use in the place of worship is Hausa except the traditional worshipers who used the local dialect to make their incantation.
Festivals of Koenoem Language
Festivals are organized to unite their kinsmen from far and near. The chief priest is regarded as the ruler of the tribe only, but without defined territory. There is a particular festival celebrated to commemorate the death of their heroes who had fought tirelessly to emancipate them from the shackles of invaders and other form of oppressions. Their annual festival is celebrated on the 12th December, for this festival an Antelope must be casted to appease the gods.
Educational Background of Koenoem people
The Level of Education in Koeneom village is very low, because most of them believe that farming is the best way to make money.
Education as defined by one philosopher popularly known as Plato who said education is the production of sound mind to a sand body. In this definition we are made to understand that the Koenoem people were not aware of the positive impact of education, but now they have realize the positive impact of education and they now send their children to school, so as to take active part in politics.
Administration in Koenoem Land
Koenoem people’s administration is more or less a traditional system of administration. The people of Koenoem take orders from their chiefs. The chief is the administrative and ceremonial leader in the village.
There, chief who is called long Koenoem dictate some certain things for them, and any other information which is to be relay to the people must past through the chief before disseminating it to the masses.
After the chief the second in command is referred to as angwa meaning halmet, he takes directives from the chief to the people.
1.5 Genetic Classification of Koenoem Language
Source: www.Ethnologue.com
{Accessed November 2010}
AFRICAN LANGUAGE
Afro Asiatic Niger Kordofanian Nilo Sahara Khoisan
Niger Congo
West Atlantic Mande Atlantic Congo
Atlantic Ijoid Volta Congo
Ewe Edo Benue Congo Plateau
Northern Jos Western Jos Eastern Jos
Zomo Doka Koenoem Piapun
1.6 Statement of the Research Problem
The target of this research is to analyze Negative sentences in Koenoem language. Therefore, these work primarily focus on Negation in Koenoem language and our aim is to identify the various negative construction and negation markers in the language, their position in the language.
1.7 Aims and Objective
The purpose of this work is to carry out a syntactic analysis of Koenoem language with focus on the syntactic process known as negation. Our aims and objectives in this research work include.
i To explain what negation is
ii To discuss how negation is used in Koenoem
iii To identify the various negations
iv To also discuss the transformational processes used in deriving negative constructions in the language.
1.8 Scope and Organization of The Study
This work is limited to negation in Koenoem language and it is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introductory part of the work, which includes general introduction the historical background and socio-cultural profile of Koenoem language, genetic classification, aims and objectives, scope and organization of the study.
Chapter two deals with literature review here we shall review the chosen frame work that is the government and binding theory of syntax and explain its relevance to this work. Chapter three shall focus on negation as a syntactic process in Koenoem language showing among others the various positions negation markers can occupy in Koenoem language chapter four shall deal with transformational processes in Koenoem such as focus construction and relativization in relation to negation. Chapter five will summarize and conclude the work.
1.9 Data Collection
The method used in this research work for our data collection is direct translation method from English Language based on the Ibadan 400 word list. Data elicitation was carried out by direct interview of language helpers with the proceedings recorded on audio cassette. The frame technique was also employed during data collection.
Informants Data
Informant Name: MR. GWAITIL TITUS
Occupation: Military
Age: 28
Religion: Christianity
Language spoken apart from Koenoem: English, Piapun, Hausa, Tal.
Number of years spent in Koenoem: 20 years
1.10 Data Analysis
To ensure an efficient data analysis is this research, all the data collected were carefully transcribed. The morphemes that make up the phrases and sentences were also carefully glossed. The data collected were used according to how the native speakers used them without imposing and extraneous rules or norm.
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ASPECTS OF NEGATION IN KANINKON
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
This research is aimed at describing an aspect of syntax of Kaninkon language. And our focus is negation in the language.
Kaninkon is a language spoken in Jema’a local government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. The native speakers call themselves kyung (Kaninkon). Although, the Kaninkon is not a major group in Nigeria, yet the speakers are found in various part of Nigeria, especially in the Northern part of the Country.
The Kaninkon people are among the indigenous tribe of Jema’a local government and Kafancha area in particular. The areas they occupy traditionally has border with Kagoro to the North-East, Bajju to the north, Kagoma to the West, Numana and Mada to the South. They are brothers with Nindem and Kanufi who are also to the South East.
In this chapter, we shall discuss the historical background of the speakers, the geographical location, social cultural profile of Kaninkon people and the genetic classification of the speakers together with the aims and objective of this research. In this chapter also, we shall be reviewing G – B syntax and relevant literatures on negation as a syntactic process in human language. And also, we shall mention the scope and organization of the study, statement of the research problems and research questions.
1.2 Historical Background
According to oral history, the Kaninkon is said to have originated from Katsina State, Nigeria. They may probably descend from the Kaita family in the present day Katsina State. This might have been made known from oral history passed down from our forefathers. Evidence of this origin can be noticed from the characteristics of both the Kaninkon and Hausa of Katsina. One of such features is the tribal mark. And the mode of burial was the same; both decorated the perimeter of the grave with broken pots.
The initial migration involved many clans but probably due to inter clan conflicts only two clans constitute the Kaninkon. They are Turan and Ngbechio. It is believed those who migrated from Katsina finally settled in a place called Gwok in the present day Gwong (Kagoma).
In the course of the conflicts already mentioned, other clans migrated further leaving behind the two clans at the present day geographical location-Gyannek (Bakin Kogi). The other break away clans may constitutes the other neighbouring people with the Kaninkon who share similarities in the language and culture.
1.3 Geographic Location
Kaninkon people are in Jema’a local government area of Kaduna State, which till date remains their home. The community is surrounded by seven (7) districts, such as: Ung-fari district, bakin-kogi districts Ung-Baki district, Amere district, Goska district, Ambam district, Dangoma district.
1.4. Socio-Cultural Profile
Culture is defined as the total way of life by which group of people in a particular geographical location is identified. Kaninkon people have their distinct cultural and traditional belief, which are expressed in their mode of dressing, occupation, religion, festivals, and marriage of Kaninkon people.
1.4.1 Dressing
Dressing is an important aspect of any culture by which one is identified as belonging to a particular cultural group. In the olden days, the Kaninkon men started covered their body with leaves. The used of leaves was to cover their private part of their body. As time went by, the used of skin was also introduced by both the men and women of Kyung (Kaninkon) people to cover their private part of their body. The kyung man graduated from the used of animal skin as dresses to ‘bante’ and ‘rig’ as clothing. Men used Bante while women used ‘rig’. ‘Bante’ was a pieces hand woven clothes cover round the waist and in between the legs. Bids and cowries decorate the rig.
As a result of advent of Europeans, the Kaninkon finally advanced to the use of modern clothes.
1.4.2 Religion
Before the advent of Europeans, the Kaninkon people were idols worshipers. But as a result of coming of Christianity, traditional religions beliefs pave way and at the moment, there are two main religious – Christianity and Islam. Islam is restricted to only one district – Dangoma district, the rest of the chiefdom can be said to be about ninety percent Christians only few people still belong to traditional religions.
1.4.3 Festivals
The major festivals used to be a celebration of the death of an old person, marriage and initiations. Festivities were reserved for the dry season especially for the month of March to early May. In Kaninkon land, if an old person died in the rainy season, there would be the normal drumming and little celebration but the proper celebration would be shifted to the dry season. There was also a big festival of celebration known as Dung. It takes place occasionally not every year.
1.4.4 Occupation
Farming was the major economic system of kyung people like any other traditional agriculturist. The Kyung traditional agriculturist involved the division of labour according to sex and age.
1.4.5 Marriage
Marriage ceremonies could take place at any time in Kaninkon land. On marriage, baby girls could be Bathrobe right from birth. That is, if a girl was born, a father could say ‘this girl will be a wife to my son and like joke, if interest continuous this could eventually happen and did happen a lot.
1.5 Genetic Classification Of Kaninkon
Kaninkon is a language, which is under Benue – Congo language family. According to oral source, the language has about 60, ooo speakers.
The genetic tree below shows the origin of Kaninkon language from Niger – Kordofania plylum.
GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF KANINKON.
1.6 Statement Of The Research Problem
The target of this research is to analyze negative Sentences in Kaninkon Language. Therefore, this work is primarily focused on negation in Kaninkon Language and our aim also to identify the various negative constructions and negative markers in the language, their position in sentences and how they are used in the Language.
1.7 Aims And Objectives
The purpose of this work is to carry out a syntactic analysis of Kaninkon language with a focus on the syntactic process known as negation. Our aims and objectives in this research work include:
To identify the various negation markers in Kaninkon.
To explain what negation is all about in a language.
To discuss how negation is used in Kaninkon language.
To also discuss the transformation processes used in deriving negations in the language.
1.8 Research Questions.
Based on the aims and objectives of this work, we shall attempt to give answers to the following research questions.
How many negative markers are attested in Kaninkon.
Where do negative markers occur in a sentence
To also discus transformational processes used in deriving negative constructions in the language.
What are the transformational processes in the language.
1.9 SCOPES AND ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
This work is limited to negation in Kaninkon language and its divided into five chapter. Chapter one deals with the introductory which includes general introduction, historical background, geographical location, socio-cultural profile, genetic classification, aims and objectives, research questions, scope and organization of the study. Chapter two deals with literature review, here, we shall review the chosen frame work- that is the government and Binding theory of syntax also known as G.B syntax and explain its relevance to this work.
Chapter three focuses on negation as a syntactic process in Kaninkon language, showing among others, the various positions of negation markers can occupy in Kaninkon language. Chapter four shall deals with transformational processes in Kaninkon such as passivization, relativisation, and focus constructions in relation to negation. Chapter five will summarize, conclusion and references of the work.
1.10 Data Collection
The method used in this research work for our data collection is direct translation method from English Language base on the Ibadan 400 word-list.
Data elicitation was carried out by direct interview with language helpers with the proceedings audiocassette. The frame techniques were employed during data collection.
1.10.1 Field Methodology
Informant 1: Mallam Bako Galadima
Occupation: H.R.H, chief ruler
Age: 72 years old
Religion: Christianity
Language spoken apart from Kaninkon: English and Hausa
Number of year spent: 21 years
Informant 2: Alkali A qweh
Occupation: Police officer
Age: 44 years
Religion: Christianity
Language spoken apart from Kaninkon: English and Hausa,
Number of year spent in Kaninkon: 30 years
1.11 Data Analysis
To ensure an efficient data analysis in this research, all the data collected were carefully transcribed. The morphemes that make up the phrases and sentences were carefully glossed. The data collected were used according to how the native speakers used them without imposing any extraneous rules or norm.
1.12 Review Of The Chosen Frame Work –Gb Syntax
The framework adopted for this research is the government and Binding (GB) theory, which is known as principles, and parameter theory. This is the theory, which captures the similarities, which exist between different categories of lexical phrases by assigning the same structure to them rather than having different phrase structure rule for NPs VPs e.t.c.
According to cook (1988:86), “the theory of government and Binding theory is an interlocking arrangement of principles and sub theories which interact in many different ways”. Radford (1988:419), “transformation as the rule that deals with the act of changing the structure of one sentence to another structure through the concept of movement known as move alpha (move – α).
This theory (G.B) was developed to correct the lapses in transformational generative grammar.
Government and Binding theory postulate seven sub-theories of the theory of grammar. The structures generated at various levels are constrained by a set of theories, which define the kind of relationships possible with a grammar
The sub-theories of government and binding theories are given below (cook, 1988:87):
X -bar Theory
Theta Theory
iii. Case Theory
Binding Theory
Bounding Theory
Government Theory
vii. Control Theory
X-BAR THEORY
Horrocks (1987:101) Sate that “X-bar theory provides principle for the projection of phrasal categories from lexical categories and imposes conditions on the hierarchical organizations of categories in the form of general schemata: the central notion of X-bar theory, according to Horrocks (1987:102), is that each of the major lexical categories (noun, verb, preposition and adjective) is the head of the same category (noun; NP, verb; VP, preposition; PP and Adjective; adjp) in essence, it defines possible phrases structure configuration in language.
Carnie (2007:155) “says that, the name “X-bar theory comes from the original mechanism for indicating intermediate categories”. N’ was written N’ with a bar over the letter. The over bar is the origin of he “bar” in the name of the theory. X is a variable that stands for any category (N, Adj, VP, e.t.c.) also, X-bar theory projects from the core projection level to the maximal projection level. This is illustrated below:
X” maximal projection level.
X’ intermediate projection level.
X core projection level.
Cook (1988:86), “explains that X-bar captures properties of all phrases, not just theory of a certain type, and its bases the theory on lexical categories that link with entries in the lexicon.” Lamidi (2000:105), “say that the head is the keyword in a phrase and the word can be pre-or post modified “. In essence, the head of a phrase is very important in X-bar theory and the parameter that distinguishes languages that incorporate the head of the phrase to the right or left is known as head parameter”. If it is head first, we have the schemata below:
X’ X0 complement.
X’
X0 Comp
If the head last, then we have the following:
X’ X0 complement.
X’
Comp X0
Cook (1988:87), “In X-bar theory, the lexical categories remain the basic symbol. The phrases in which they are incorporated are shown by the addition of bars to the original symbols. This is exemplified below (Lamidi, 2001:150)”. The boy (NP):
N’
Det N
The Boy
Drink milk (VP):
V’
V N’
Drink Mil
THETA THEORY
Horrocks (1987:101), “states that θ – theory is concerned with the assignment of thematic roles to sentential constituent. θ – theory posits that a word can assign a number of different theta roles (semantic roles that things play in a sentence, e.g actor/agent is for the doer of an action, patient/theme is the thing affected).
“The main principle of θ – CRITERION which requires each thematic role to be uniquely assigned, i.e each constituent denoting an argument is assigned just one – role and – role is assigned to just one argument – denoting – constituent. For example (Kirsten, 1991:493):
John went to the market by car.
1P
Spec l’
NP
I
N1 VP
N0 (past) Spec V’
John NP
V N’ PP
Go location N0 P’ NP
Market P0 N
In the illustration above, verb phrase assigns: Agent role to the subject NP, verb assigns patient role to the object of the verb and preposition assigns location role to its NP.
CASE THEORY
Kirsten, (1991:496), “explains that theory regulates the distribution of phonetically realized NPs by assigning abstract case to them. It deals with the principle of case assignment to constituents”. Horrocks (1987:103), “opines that the basic idea is that case is assigned under government, i.e, the choice of case is determined by the government in any sentence. A lexical head ‘X’ may be said to govern its sisters in X-bar and certain of their complements. Thus, NP subject is assigned normative by INFL; verb assigns accusative case to object of the verb, while preposition assigns oblique case to its object.”
“One of the most important principles of case theory is case filter, which states that any S-structure that contains an NP with lexical context but no case is ungrammatical (Kirsten 1991:407) formally represented case filter as.”
* NP
+ Lexical
– Case
BINDING THEORY
This theory is concerned with the relationship of NP participants in the sentence. Horrocks (1987:105), states that, “it is concerned primarily with the conditions under which NPs are interpreted as co-referential with other NPs in the same sentence. There are three types of NPs, which are relevant to the binding theory.
These are:
Anaphors
Pronominal
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ASPECTS OF MERNYANG MORPHOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of content
CHAPTER ONE
General Background
Historical Background
Geographical Location
Socio-cultural Background
Socio-Linguistic Background
Methodology
Phylo-Genetic Classification
1.8 Approaches to Morphological Analysis
1.8.1 Scope Of Study
1.8.2 Justification
1.9 Synopsis of Chapters
CHAPTER TWO
Introduction
Consonant Chart
2.1.1 Distinctive feature
2.1.2 Atsam Vowel Chart
2.1.3 Distinctive feature matrix
2.2 Tonal system in Atsam language
2.3 Syllable Structure
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Morphology
3.2 Types of Morpheme
3.2.1 Free Morphemes
3.2.2 Bound Morphemes
3.3 Function of Morphemes
3.3.1 Inflectional of Morphemes
3.3.2 Derivational function of morpheme
3.4 Atsam Language typology
3.5 Numerals
3.6 Principle morphemic Identification
CHAPTER FOUR
Introduction
4.1 Prefixation
4.1.1 Suffixation
4.1.2 Suprafix
4.1.3 Compounding
4.1.4 Borrowing
4.1.5 Clipping
4.1.6 Reduplication
4.2 Word Classes
4.2.1 Noun
4.2.2 Pronoun
4.2.3 Adjectives
4.2.4 Adverb
4.2.5 Verb
4.2.6 Conjunction
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Recommendation
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
General Background
This work is on Atsam morphology. Atsam is one of the languages spoken in Kauru local Government of Kaduna State. Another name for Atsam language is ‘Chawei’
This chapter will be devoted to the historical and linguistic background, geographical location, genetic classification, scope of study and synopsis of chapters.
Historical Background.
According to oral tradition, Atsam people are ethnic group found in Kaduna State. They are predominantly found in States like Plateau, Nassarawa and the Federal Capital Territory. Atsam people originated from Sango Kattaf.
Geographical Location
Atsam speaking people can be found in Kauru Local Government Area of Kaduna State. They share boundaries with Plateau, Kaduna Local Government in the South and Zango Kattaf on the West. Atsam is spoken in six districts in Kauru L. G. A. they are:
Damakasuwa, with its district head at Damakusuwa chawei. This district covers villages such as Kisari, Mangual and Refingura.
Zambina chawei. It covers villages such as Baduru, and Kurmi, Risga.
Fadan chawei. With its district head at Fadan chawei. This district covers villages such as Talo and Riban.
Pari with its district head at Kaffin chawei. This district covers villages such as Kaffin chawei, Pari among others.
Kamaru district with its district head at Kizakoro, with villages like Kihoba, Kamaru.
Barkin Kogi.
Each district is headed by a district head.
Socio Cultural profile
Cultural practice
Culture is the total ways of life of a people in terms of their bliefs, way of life or art. Culture must be studied directly by studying behavior, customs, language and so on.
The aspect of Atsam that we shall discuss here covers their language, festivals, religion, marriage rite, types of food they eat and jobs they engage in.
TRADITIONAL FESTIVAL
One of the festival in Atsam is “SHAKDODO” Shakdodo is the name of a man who in account of the bad behaviors of his wives got angry and turned into a river. Shakdodo is been scarified as dictated by the priests, food and domestic animals such as Goat, Fowl, Guinea – corn are used to make sacrifice to the river
Women are not allowed to participate in this festival, any woman found, will be punished by bringing items like Goat, Fowl to appease the river.
MARRIAGE CEREMONY
For a man and woman to get married in Atsam land, few steps are taken. Firstly, there is an intermediary between the wife and the husband’s family. It is the duty of the intermediary to make known the intension of both families. The bride’s family will then decide if they want their daughter to marry the man. After many consultations, a date is picked, this time; dowry of the woman (bride) is paid along side with tubers of yam, kolanut, and some yards of cloth. But if the couple is willing to have a church wedding or a nikkah program, a separate day will be picked for it.
BURIAL CEREMONY
Burial ceremony is being conducted in several ways among the Atsam people depending on the sex of the dead person. If an old man dies, “SHANGBARI” a rite, is been performed in honor of the dead person for seven days, on the 40th day, another rite called “PEPIYON” is performed to appease the dead not to forget his family members, this rites are not done for women.
MODE OF ADMINISTRATION
There are six districts in Atsam; each district is headed by a district head. The head are charged with maintenance of law and order within their domains. The district heads are supported by a number of village heads within their domains and below the village head are ward heads popularly known as the Mai’angwa. The Mai’angwa reports to the village head. Mai’angwa village head District head Chief (Res – Tsam)
OCCUPATION
The major occupation of the Atsam people are farming, Craftmaking, Beekeeping, but the dominant occupation among the Atsam people is farming.
RELIGION
The dominant religion among the Atsam people is Christianity. According to the informant, Muslims are not many in Atsam.
1.5 SOCIOLINGUISTIC PROFILE
Atsam language is used as a means of communication in School, Churches and Marketplaces. Atsam is spoken in Kauru Lacal Government area of Kaduna State, though it was said that Hausa language has in one way or the other contributed to the death of many languages spoken in Northern part of Nigeria. Hausa is used as a medium of instruction in Schools while English language is learned as the target language. Atsam is a minority language among the Atsam people while Hausa is a language of wider communication.
Neighbouring language groups communicate with Atsam language due to their unique character in terms of accommodating, peace keeping and friendly act. Atsam speakers are only about 30, 000, is used as a means of communication within Atsam speakers in market places, during festive periods.
METHODOLOGY
The following is adopted as methodology for this research work.
Data collection
Data Analysis
This research work is made possible through a multilingual informant
Name of informant – Mr. Sunday Danladi
Age of informant – 45 years
Religion of informant – Christianity
Marital Status – Married
Years spent in home town -25 years.
Language spoken apart from Atsam – English language, Hausa language and Tyap language
Occupation – Police Officer
Data analysis –
Means of data elicitation is through the following
The Ibadan wordlist of for hundred lexical items
Hypothetical frame technique
Structure and unstructured oral interview.
The Ibadan wordlist of lexical items is a list designed to elicit
similar items in different languages. The wordlist consists of common items that are common among human society such as parts of human body, numerals.
The frame technique helped in small measure to determine
the actual contextual usage and forms of word as well as the various morphological forms in which words can occur.
Oral interview both in structured and unstructured manner has also been used in eliciting the data. The structured are those questions prepared ahead of the informant while the unstructured type are those in which the response from the informant served as source of another information. Materials used include
Writing materials
Recording materials such as recording tape and cassette
1.7 PHYLO – GENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Phylo-genetic classification is one of the major areas of comparative/historical linguistics.
According to Haine and Nurse (2005; 259) Genetic or phylo-genetic classification involves putting together related languages into families or language group that can be presumed to have derived historically from a common ancestor. GreenBerg (1966.8) reports that African languages are four main groups namely:
Niger Kordofonia
Afro – Asitatic
Nilo – Sahara
Khoison
Atsam language belong to the plateau family of a sub group of Benue – Congo. The platoid itself is a sub family of Benue congo of the Niger Kordofonia language family of African language.
AFRICAN LANGUAGE
Afro-Asiatic Niger Nilo Khoisan
Kordofonia Saharan
Niger congo Kordofonia
Kru Gur Adamawa West Benue
Atlantic congo
Platoid Yoruboid Bamtoid
Funtsuan Gong Atsam Kuro Tyap Jjuu
Source – Blench 1992.
APPROACHES TO MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
For this research work to achieve a set of goals, the approaches to be employed are Analytic and synthetic approaches to the morphological analysis of Atsam language. According to Arnoff and fudeman (2005;12), the analytic approach to morphological analysis is associated with American structuralist-linguistics. Main reason for this approach is to guide a researcher in it’s research work because he is not familiar with the work.
Some words are mono – morphemic words, some have more than one morpheme breaking down of these words into their component morphs is what analytic approach is all about.
The following word serves as examples in Atsam language
[ra] ‘House’ [ara] ‘houses’
[rogo] ‘Cassava’ [arogo] ‘Cassavas’
[Naskun] ‘yam’ [anaskun] ‘yams’
From the following examples we can say “a” represents the plural tense maker.
Second approach is the synthetic approach. It assumes that the linguist has some idea of the research work. Then, what is left behind is how to put some words together. For example:
Ìnká + mù Ìnkámù
Mother my my mother
Nú k + anin aninnúk
Pot water water pot
1.8.1 SCOPE OF STUDY
This work aims at describing aspects of the morphology of Atsam language. The description would use the morpheme as the unit of analyzing the internal structure of words in the language. It’s morphological process will be discussed.
In the this work, the discussion will be restricted to only the Morphological aspect of Atsam and the focus of the study is Atsam language spoken in Kaduna, Kaduna State.
1.8.2 JUSTIFICATION
The study of Atsam language is very important because, to the best of my knowledge, no work of this type has been done on this language. This work will therefore help this language by not going into extinction and providing an autography for it. It will also promote future work and serve as source of reference for future work.
1.9 SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS
This research work is organized into five chapters.
Chapter one consists of the historical background of Atsam, the sociolinguistic profile, socio cultural profile, geographical location, genetic classification of Atsam, scope of study, justification for the study and the synopsis of chapters.
Chapter two centers on the phonological aspects of Atsam language.
Chapter three is on morphological processes present in the language, type of morphemes, aspects of morphology and structural position of Morphemes.
Chapter four would examine the syntactic classification of words in the language while, chapter five summarizes and concludes the project.
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OR
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Account Number: 3139283609
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08068231953 or 08168759420
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ASPECTS OF MIGILI VERB PHRASE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 General Background of the Study
Language is the fabrics that ties every member of the society together, which serves as an instrument used by man for specific and distinguishable purposes. Indeed, the focus of this research is to shed light on how verb phrases are formed in Migili language. Therefore, the first chapter of this research is focused on the genetic classification of Migili language. As an introductory chapter, attempts shall be made to trace the origin, socio-cultural profile, administrative system, religion, geographical location, topography (life zone) economy, marriage rites, map, genetic classification of Migili. Effort shall also be extended to the organization of the study, theoretical framework together with a review of the chosen theory, data collection and analysis and some syntactic concept.
According to Crystal (1994: 420) syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form grammatical sentences in contrast with morphology that studies word structure. This branch of linguistics is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases are sentences in a rule governed manner. In a nutshell, words are not together in a random order, they follow certain observable patterns in any language.
1.1 Historical Background of Migili
Migili refers to the name of a language and also a group of people. The Migili people constitute about 96% of the total population of Agyaraoju Obi Local Government, Nasarawa State in Nigeria; with a total population of about 18,000.
History has it that different tribes including Migili, Alago, Eggon all settled at Korofa Kingdom in Taraba state. It was said that a man named Akuka was denied the right to the throne and as a result had to leave Kororofa together with some other members of the Migili tribe to a place called Ukari and later to Lafia region. Some of them moved to Abuja, Minna in Niger State, Kubacha in Kaduna state.
The Eggon tribe are also neighbours of the Migilis with some of them having the knowledge of Migili language.
Today, Migili language has various alternate names such as: Higili, Migili, Koro of Lafia.
1.2 Socio-Cultural Profile
Like most communities around them, the socio-cultural background of the people of Migili include: Occupation, Religion, Festival, Mode of Dressing, Marriage.
1.2.1 Occupation
The Migilis are farmers to the core. Yam is the major cash crop that is being produced in the area. Some other agricultural produce include guinea corn, maize, millet, groundnut, and beans. However, they also engage in wearing and artistic works. The land has varying proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus, it is sandy on the up land, it makes plant grow well, agricultural product are sold in the market called Migili market once in a week.
1.2.2 Religion
The Migili people are predominantly Christians. Before the coming of the missionaries, the Migilis’ were traditional worshippers who had belief in ancestral gods. By the coming of Christianity, a lot of people who were traditional worshippers became converts and embraced Christianity.
1.2.3 Festival
One major festival in Migili land is the Odu masquerade festival. The Odu masquerade is dressed in colourful masks and displays great dancing skills with spectacular dancing skills and beautiful dance steps. According to the people, Odu was the god of war and it is believed that he helped the people win battles, equipping them with magical and spiritual powers which made them unconquerable. In every village in Migili, there is a small building built for the Odu masquerade around which he will dance for three (3) days.
1.2.4 Mode of Dressing
The people of Migili are fashionable people. These are people who still preserve the tradition of their ancestors and their rich culture. In the olden days, both male and female were usually seen wearing bracelet, cowries, beads. Another distinguishing feature of the Migilis’ was the plaiting of head by both men and women.
Nowadays, civilization plays a significant role in the mode of dressing of the people as most of them especially the younger ones now dress into western manner.
1.2.5 Marriage
Before the coming of the missionaries into the Migili society marriage was done by the father of the boy approaching the mother of the girl (from birth) and paying a token amount of money to her parents. Once this has been done the girl was said to be betrothed and will continue to live with her parents until she gets about fifteen (15) years of age. The boy pays his first installment of her dowry and farms for the father-in-law once every year.
Today marriage are done in churches and unlike before women are free to choose their groom and are not mandated to marry from their society alone.
1.3 Genetic Classification
According to Greenberg (1966: 8) African languages belong to various families, and there are four main groups. These groups are: Niger Kordofania, Nilo Sahara, Afro-Asiatic and Khoisan.
DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF IJAKORO LANGUAGE
1.4 Scope and Organization of Study
This research is aimed at discussing the general overview of verb phrase in Migili language. This research work is divided into five chapters which are relevant aspects of the theory of syntax.
Chapter one which is the introductory part includes the historical background, socio-cultural profile, the scope and organization of study as well the theoretical framework, the data collection method and data analysis and lastly, a brief review of the chosen framework.
Chapter two shall focus on sound inventory, the basic syntactic concept such as phrase structure rule, lexical categories, basic word order and the sentence types.
Chapter three contains the main aspect of the study which is the verb phrase. In this chapter the nature of verb phrase in Migili language and the processes that are attested will be discussed.
Chapter four will examine the transformational processes such as focusing, relativization, relfexivization, passivisation and question formation.
Chapter five which is the last chapter will present a brief summary of the whole research and also the conclusion and recommendation based on such finding.
1.5 Theoretical Framework
The theory to be adopted in this research is the government and binding theory in the analysis of Verb Phrase in Migili language.
1.6 Data Collection
This research is made possible through the bi-lingual language helper. However, the Ibadan four hundred word list and some sentence constructions are used to extract necessary information from the language helpers (informants) The method of collection was through direct translation from English to Migili language. The language helper speaks Migili, English, Hausa, and Eggon.
Mr. Ayuba Osibi Haruna one of the language helper is a typist in the local government secretariat, Agyaragu Obilocal government. Also, Revered Albert, a man of God in Agyaragu.
1.7 Data Analysis
Statistically, about one hundred and fifty sentences were collected from the native speaker. In order to have accurate analysis for this research, the Ibadan four hundred wordlist with an equivalent meaning of the item in Migili language was used.
Also, the frame technique used in his research is by framing of sentences in English language and the translation of these sentences into Migili language by the informant. This enables the researcher to determine the actual underlying form of a word, constituent and possible syntactic classes to which each word belongs to in Migili language.
1.8 Review of the Chosen Framework
The theory to be used in the analysis of Verb Phrase in Migili language is the Government and Binding theory (GB). This theory is a modular deductive theory of universal grammar which posits multiple level of representation related by the transformational rule. However, it is a more advanced theory of universal grammar. Sanusi (1996:19-21).
Again, Sanusi (1996: 21) explained that government and binding theory greatly eliminates proliferation of transformational rules like passive, affix, hoping verb-number agreement, question formation, equi-NP deletion, raising permutation, insertion etc.
Hegman (1991: 13) defined government and binding theory as a theory of universal grammar which is the system of all the principles that are common to all human languages. Government and binding theory is otherwise known as principle and parameter theory.
In government and binding theory, the grammar is a continuous interaction between component and sub-theories embodying different principle and parameters.
Government and binding theory operate through the modules of grammar like government, case, theta control, binding, bounding, and X-bar theory.
1.8.1 Sub-Theories of Government and Binding
Horrock (1987: 29) stated that, the core grammar of a given language is derived from the interaction of sub-theories of universal grammar. These sub-theories are inter-related that each of them can account for grammaticality or ungrammaticality of any sentence. These sub-theories are: X-bar theory, case theory, government theory, control theory, binding theory, bounding theory and the theta theory.
The above listed sub-theories are diagrammatically represented below to show the inter-relationship among them.
MODULAR THEORY OF GRAMMAR
X-BAR Theory
ECP
Control
Binding
PHONETIC FORM LOGICAL FORM
(Adapted from Cook (1988: 33).
X-bar Theory
Based on appropriate analysis, for this research work, X-bar is the theory to be adopted for comprehensive analysis.
According to Chomsky (1981) “the X-bar theory is the central module of the principles and paramenters approach in syntax”.
Also, Haegeman (1994) says that the X-bar theory is the part of grammar regulating the structure of a phrase.
The core of X-bar theory is the recognition of the fact that phrasal constituents have ‘head’ upon which the other elements of the constituents in question are dependent. (Horrocks 1987: 63) He submits that items which are involved in sub-categorization and which are in most cases interrupted as arguments of the head, appear with the head X in a phrasal category X-bar. X-bar is called a phrasal ‘projection’ of head, in this case the smallest constituent X as a sub-constituent (Horrocks, 1987: 64).
From the above, the cover symbol ‘X’ stands for the set of lexical categories which head phrases, as in V (for verb), N (for noun), Adj (for adjective), P (for preposition), Adv (for adverb), such that N heads NP, V heads VP, P heads PP, Adj heads Adjp and Adv heads Advp. This implies that phrasal categories e.g. VP, PP, NP, AP all have heads that belong to the same category as the phrasal category (Akmajian, 2001: 215).
Again, Horrocks (1987) explains that X-theory periods principles for the projection of phrasal categories from lexical categories and imposes conditions of hierarchical organization of categories in the form of general schemata. Thus, the general phrase structure rule schema for phrasal categories would be: XP à X Comp.
Where ‘comp’ which stands for complement could be a ‘PP’ or an ‘NP’ with ‘X’ standing for a lexical category e.g. P. N, V etc. This implies that when ‘X’ represents ‘N’, it means that ‘XP’ is an ‘NP’, when ‘X’ represents ‘V’, then ‘XP’ is a ‘VP’ and so on.
In summary, the major concern of the X-bar theory is to describe the syntactic and formal structures of phrases and the inherent general characteristics they have in common.
1.9 Case Theory
According to Horrocks (1987: 102), “case theory deals with the principle of case assignment to constituents”.
Yusuf (1998: 26) defines case theory as a theory that deals with the forms that NPs take in different syntactic environments.
Basically, the assignment of case is done under government theory in which the choice of case is determined by the governor.
Yusuf went further to say that adjacency is required for case assignment. This means, case assignees and the assignors must be contiguous with no barrier blocking the discharge of the (Abstract) case.
He also makes it clear that, case assignor are always head of their phrases and are adjacent to the complements that receive the case (pg. 28).
The implication is that, a verb cannot assign any case to prepositional phrase as there is an NP barrier. That blocks such a transfer.
The three common case under Government and Binding theory are:
Nominative case assigned by tensed INFL
Accusative case assigned by verb
Oblique case assigned by prepositions
1.10 Theta Ө Theory
Another module under GB theory is theta theory. The submission of this theory is that a lexical category will have Ө attributes either as assigner or assignee.
Horrocks (1987: 101-107) says Ө-theory is concerned with the assignment of what Chomsky called ‘thematic’ roles to sentential constituents. By thematic roles, Chomsky means thematic assignment called semantic roles such as agent, patient, etc. It is assumed that these are assigned to the complements of lexical items as a lexical property.
For example:
Play the ball on the pitch
The NP complement “the ball” is assigned the role of patient or theme while the PP complement is assigned the role of location.
In all, the fundamental task of Ө-theory is to determine the circumstances (i.e. the syntactic position) occupied by an NP as well as the governor of such position in the sentence.
Examples:
The goalkeeper threw the ball to the opponent
The goalkeeper à subject
The ball à Direct object
The opponent à Indirect object
The main principle of Ө-theory is Ө criterion which requires each thematic role to be uniquely assigned. Each argument bears one and only one Ө-role and Ө-role is assigned to one and only one argument. Yusuf (1998: 124).
The commonly expressed roles are agents, theme, instrument, locative (goal, source, direction) and a few more.
Yusuf stresses further that, participants are assigned these roles in the D-structure, whatever it is, the V or P assigned Ө-roles to their governed complement while the VP assigns a role to be subject NP.
The thrust of Ө-criterion is that every argument (be it subject, direct or indirect object) must have a Ө-role.
1.11 Binding Theory
Madjaer (1991: 46) refers to binding theory as a theory that is concerned with the systematic domain in which NP can and cannot be constructed as co-referential.
Yusuf (1998: 45) in his own view states that binding theory is concerned with the relationships of NP participants in the sentence. Precisely, binding theory shows how NP can be related to another NP.
Chomsky (1988: 520) submits that binding theory deals with the connection among Noun Phrases that have to do with such semantic properties as dependence or reference, including the connection between the pronouns and its antecedents.
The implication of the above definition is that, binding theory deals with the co-referential relationship among NPs in the same sentence. That is, how NPs co-referred or co-indexes one another in a simple sentence.
NPs that are argument are assumed to fall into one of these three categories:
Anaphors
Pronominal
Referential expressions
Anaphors
These are NP types that must have antecedents they depend on one for existence in some definite place in the sentence. Reciprocals and reflexive pronouns fall under this class e.g.
Ade hurts himself
“Himself” in the above sentence refers back to Ade, therefore Ade is the antecedent which licensed its existence.
Pronominal
These are NPs that lack specific lexical content and have only the features; person, number, gender and case they either refer to individuals independently or co-refer to the individuals already mentioned in a given sentence. E.g.
Bola greeted her mother.
“Her” may refer to the individual denoted by Bola, or another individual not mentioned in the sentence.
Referential Expression
These are NPs lexical heads which potentially refer to something. A referential expression is also known as R-e
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ASPECTS OF KUTURMI VERB PHRASE
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND
This research work is on the Verb phrase of Kuturmi. Kuturmi is one of the languages spoken in Kaduna State. It is spoken in Awon and Arikwo. It has two dialect, Inuwa and Umsuwe which is used in Arikwo and Inuwa is been used in Awon (district head quarter) Umsuwe is the majority while Inuwa is the minority.
In this chapter, we shall discuss the historical background, Geographical location and Socio-linguistics profile of Kuturmi speakers, the genetic classification of Kuturmi language, Scope and organization of the study, Justification of the study, Methodology, Data collection, Data Analysis and the Theoretical frame work.
1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Kuturmi land is situated geographically between latitude 9-5 degree North and 10 degree north and longitude 7.5 degree East and 8.0 degree east. The region lies to the Western part of Kachia district headquarters. The region is bounded by the river guinea to the East and South and to the North and West by the Kadara tribe. It is about 12km from Kachia town.
The vegetation of this Area falls under the guinea savannah type with prominent feature of fall grasses called elephant grass.
Among the natural resources of the region are timber, palm produce, trees and some agricultural products such as ginger, maize, millet, yam, cassava and a host of others.
1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The history of Kuturmi people was associated with migration. There exists two sources of the Kuturmi Origin. One traditional source holds that the Kutumbawa people captured Kanu empire in the year A.D. 499. Bagauda was said to be a grandson of Bayajidda the snake killer of Daura.
The second source which is the Katsina fable, simly puts it that the Kuturmi people migrated to their present settlement from Kano city in 1807 (Burdon 1969).
The Kutumbawa people were nicknamed after their occupation “Mortar carving” by their neighbour the word “Mortar” is Turimi in Hausa, But they later moved from Kano and by-passed Zaria to the north and Kauru to South and settled at a village called Kallah in Kajuru district of Kajuru Local Government Area.
1.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL PROFILE
1.3.1 CULTURAL PROFILE
Culture is a shared learned symbolic of values, beliefs and attitude that shape and influence perception and behaviour. In Kuturmi land their culture respect the fact that females should not wear trouser while males should not wear skirts. Their belief is that men should not wear women clothing while women should also not wear men’s clothing. Also the longitudinal tribal mark on their cheeks is an identity to describe the Kutumbawa people.
1.3.2 RELIGION
The Religion in Kuturmi land before Christianity was around just like other Nigerian community was essentially traditional, but now they have three religions namely: Traditional, Christianity and Islam.
1.3.2.1 TRADITION
This religion embraces a number of beliefs and practices among which he belief in the supernatural, who is believed to be the architect of their lives. In this practice, there is the belief of several spirits those that posses powers above those of ordinary human beings and the constitute power of their own and live as human beings live, they are commonly known as “Ushara” and they live in various places like rivers, trees, forest and mountains.
1.3.2.2 CHRISTIANITY
To the Kuturmi’s God is the creator and controller who have the final authority over the universe. He (God) is known by the name “UCHE” that is the Supreme Being. In this Religion, the idea of God is fundamental. They believed in the existence of the supreme being. The lord of the universe and its creator.
To them he is the author of all things and the God of all gods “UCHE” is represented by the Kuturmi’s as being too holy to be approached directly, and so they have devised other means of approaching him through prayers. In this religion the people serving God are known as the Christians and goes to church every Sunday to worship and adore him.
1.3.2.3 ISLAM
In Kuturmi land, there are no many Muslims in the land, they are not more than 10-20 people in this religion, they also have their own way of praying or approaching their God, they pray at intervals while on Fridays mainly, they go to the mosque for their worship service.
1.3.3 FESTIVAL
There also exist some festivals in Awon, these include, harvest festivals, masquerade festival and installation of chiefs among others. The harvest festival comes up whenever new “Accha” (hungry rice) is around, they celebrate it while the chiefs will pray on it and take it first before any other person can take it.
1.3.4 MARRIAGE RITE
Marriages in this community were in the olden days the responsibility of the parents. The parent chooses wives for their son’s right from the day female child is born. The father or the mother simply ties a small rope around the leg of the baby indicating his or her willingness to marry her to his or her son, from that time gift of food stuff will be taken to the girls parent at the end of every farming season until she grows for marriage age when dowry will be taken to her parents. The dowry is usually a hen and a pot of local wine (burukutu) the culture has since given way to the modern methods of marriage as practice use were in the northern part of the country.
1.3.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE
Kuturmi people lives in traditional mud houses, the houses which was formerly circular in shapes with thatch roofs had gradually given way to the modern rectangular houses with corrugated iron sheets. The houses built in clusters belonging to an extended family. Families were divided or distinguished along the clandestine lines. The clans were named after occupations or social status of family like Arikpan (The warriors) ‘Arigumo’ (The ruling clan) ‘Arikma’ (The blacksmith) and Aritaworo.
1.3.5.1 OCCUPATION
Kuturmi people’s occupation is majorly farming, they in addition to farming practiced mortar carving and blacksmith hunting and fishing are practices to their dishes, farming is carried out in sessions beginning with yam, cocoyam, hungry rice, guinea corn and millet.
Today, Kuturmi’s food crops are in commercial quantity for sale to the outside communities.
1.3.5.2 FOOD
The food eaten majorly by this people (Kuturmi) is ‘Tuwo and Kalkash soup (okro) they use Accha in making their Tuwo this days, but before it was guinea corn they use in making their Tuwo.
1.3.5.3 DRESS
Kuturmi women dress in ‘Ture’ a piece of cloth of about 1.5 meter long and two inches wide tied around the waist and upper part of their body (covering the essential part of them. The young girls use leaves while the men dress in animal skin which covers just the waist covering their private part. This tradition has since given to modern way of dressing. The men now dresses simply but occasionally uses flowing gowns on festivals and Sundays while their women folks wear wrappers and blouses with head tie to march.
1.3.6 SOCIOLINGUISTIC PROFILE
It (Kuturmi) is a language of the home, it is not in use in the educational system, but it is used for communication in the home. While Hausa is the Language of Education together with English Language. The orthography used in writing Kuturmi is the Greek-Roman Orthography and not Hausa Orthography.
The relationship between Hausa and Kuturmi is that, both Hausa and Kuturmi are been used concurrently, Kuturmi borrowed more of Hausa sounds. In a nutshell we can say Kuturmi is endangered because Hausa language has dominated it.
1.4 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION
NIGER KORDOFANIAN
NIGER CONGO KORDOFANIAN
West Atlantic Kru Kwa Mande Benue Congo
Plateau Junkoid Cross River Bantoid
Plateau 1 Plateau 2 Plateau 3 Plateau 4 Plateau 5 Plateau 6 Plateau 7
Eloyi Zaria Group
Koro Subgroup Jaba Mandu Subgroup Central Kadara subgroup
Idon Kadara Doka Ikulu cluster Kajuru
Kuturmi
GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF KUTURMI (FIVAZ AND SCOTT 1977:314)
1.5 SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This work aims at describing the Verb phrase of Kuturmi language using the Government and binding theory. The work will describe the various verbs and verb complements in the language and discuss some transformational processes involved in their derivation. The scope of this work is therefore essentially the verb phrase in Kuturmi language.
The research work is divided into five chapters.
Chapter One discusses the general background to the study, the historical background of the language and people, their socio-cultural profile, genetic classification of the language, scope and organization of the study, justification of the study, methodology, collection and data analysis.
Chapter Two reviews some literature review to the study, such as phrase structure rules, lexical categories, sentence types and the verb phrase and its constituents tone and syllable structure as well as the basic word orders.
Chapter Three deals with the verb phrase of Kuturmi language, it identifies the verb in the language and classified them based on their syntactic and semantic functions, the chapter also discusses the verb phrase in the language together with their components.
Chapter Four focuses on the transformational processes that are relevant to the derivation of the verb phrase in the language while Chapter Five summarizes the work, make the recommendations and concludes the study.
1.5.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The study of Kuturmi language is very important because to the best of our knowledge no work of this type has been done on it. This work will therefore help in reserving the language by committing it into writing and providing an orthography for it. It will also promote future work on this language as the present work can be used for future research into the language.
1.5.2 METHODLOGY
The following methodology was adopted in collecting the Data for this long essay. The Data used in this research work are face to face contact method, using oral interview and the Ibadan word list of 400 basic items.
Two literate native speakers of the language were used to collect the Data. Hence, questions were asked in English language and answers were given in Kuturmi language.
PARTICULARS OF THE INFORMANT
NAME: Mrs. Lyda Oguche
AGE: 36 Yrs
SEX: Female
OCCUPATION: Lecturer
RELIGION: Christianity
YEARS SPENT IN HOMETOWN: 23 Yrs
OTHER LANGUAGES SPOKEN: Hausa, Igala, English and
Kuturmi
NAME: Mrs. Kankana Bilihatu
AGE: 40 Yrs
SEX: Female
OCCUPATION: Teacher (Vice Principal)
RELIGION: Christianity
YEARS SPENT IN HOMETOWN: 21 Yrs
OTHER LANGUAGES SPOKEN: Hausa, English and Kuturmi
1.5.3 DATA ANALYSIS
The analysis of the Data collected will be carried out using the Government and Binding Theory.
1.6 REVIEW OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
GOVERNMENT AND BINDING THEORY
This theory was formulated by Noam Chomsky in his 1981 lectures on Government and binding theory (Chomsky 1981, Cook 1988). Transformational Generative Grammar is a complex theory involving abstract components. Creating a new simplicity and capturing the internal and universal knowledge of language using small numbers of properties.
The following are the components of Government and Binding theory according to Chomsky 1981 lectures on Government and binding.
X-bar Theory
Control Theory
Bounding Theory
Case Theory
Theta Theory
Binding Theory
Government Theory
We believe that there is a relationship that relates these theories together in one way or the other which am going to bring out diagrammatically below with the use of X-bar to show us their relationship.
1.6.1 X-BAR THEORY
Lexicon
Move-a
Bounding
CASE THEORY q Theory
(CASE FILTER) (q-criterion)
ECP CONTROL
BINDING
Modules of Grammar
(Adapted from Sells (1985) and Cook (1988)…
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ASPECTS OF KUTURMI PHONOLOGY
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
General Background
This study examines aspects of Kuturmi phonology, a language spoken in some parts of Kaduna State of Nigeria by a population of about fourteen thousand speakers 14,000. (Vision accessed 19th Jan, 2010). Phonology is a branch of linguistics which investigates the ways in which sounds are used systematically in different languages to form words and utterances. It is the scientific study of arbitrary vocal symbols used in human speech, and patterns in which symbols enter to produce intelligent, meaningful utterances (Oyebade 2004:2).
1.2 Historical Background
The history of Kuturmi people has always been associated with migration. There are two sources of the Kuturmi origin. One traditional source says that the people of Kuturmi formerly called ‘the Kutumbawa’ hailed from Daura province in Kastina State. Burdon (1909) allerged, that Baganda who was the grandson of Bayajidda ‘the snake killer of Daura’ was the one that led the Kutumbawa people to capture Kano Empire in the year A.D 499. The second source says that they migrated from Kano city in 1809 AD as a result of jihad wars and ruled Kano Empire between 14th to 18th centuries.
The Kuturmi people were nicknamed after the occupation of their forefather ‘mortal carving by their neighbors. Kuturmi means motar carving called (Sassakan Turmi in Hausa language) while ‘Turmi’ in their language means ‘mortal’. They can be identified among other tribes through their longitudinal marks on their chicks. It was alleged that when Kano empire was over thrown in 1809 AD, the Kuturmi people who were residing in Kano city under the leadership of Bakutumba of Kutumbawa fled to Sabo village to the west of Kano city from where they migrated southwards in search of refuge. There by passed Zaria to the north and Kauru to South and settled at a village called Kallah Kauru to South and settled at a village called Kallah Kauru District of Kajuru Local Government Areas. On arriving at the place the people attacked and conquered Kajuru kingdom. The Kuturmi still in search of refuge moved further southward and settled at Iburu in Kufana district from where they moved southward and settled at their present site in Kaduna State. After settling down, their forefathers continued with their traditional rulership constitution under the leadership of ‘Ogumo’ meaning ‘king’ in Kuturmi Language.
The headquarters of Kuturmi people was built in Awon village because their speech form has the standard language of the speakers. There are several dialects in the language. They are Anturu, Akama, Ariko, Awon, Asane, Akwando. All these dialects speaks differently from the standard language called Awon,
1.3 Socio-Cultural Profile
Culture is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and influence perception and behavior. The socio – cultural life of the Kuturmi which among others, mode of dressing, belief of system, marriage and festivals are dicussed bellow:
Occupation
The major occupation of their forefathers is making of mortal but presently then occupation is mostly farming. Others includes fishing, basket weaving. The farming is carried out in sessions starting with yam, cocoyam, hungryrice, guinea corn and local maize. Today, because of their large lands they produce food crops in commercial quantity for sale.
Marriage
Marriage in Kuturmi in the olden days was the responsibility of the parents. The parents chose would be wife, for their sons right from the day that female child was born. Gifts of foodstuffs were usually presented at the end of every farming season until she attained marriage age. In the contemporary kuturmi society, the females marry between the ages of seventeen and twenty (17-20) and their males between twenty one and twenty five (21-25). Their dowry is usually a hen and a pot of local wine called ‘Burukutu’
Dressing
The Kuturmi men dressed in animal skins and Agwando. The animal skins were usually worn around the waist with another hung covering only one part of the body. The Agwando dress is made from cotton, worn by the male children and adolescence. The women dressed in ture a piece of cloth of about 1.5 meter long and two inches wide, tied around the waist and covering only the essential parts of the women while young girls use leaves. Today men dress simply using flowing gowns while women wear wrappers and blouses with head ties to church or celebrations.
Religion
The people believes in God, spirits, ancestors, magic and medicinal practices. The religion of the speakers before the coming of Christianity just like any other Nigerian community was essentially traditional but presently they belief in God because they believe that God is the creator and controller of the universe. The name ‘God’ in the language is known as ‘Onung’ meaning the ‘supreme being’ Onung is represented by them as being too holy to be approached directly. Hence, they have devised other means of approaching him. These means serve as mediators and one of such means is through the ‘Okwu’ shrine known as ‘Ujenekwu’ to consult the Supreme Being concerning their problems and the chief priest Ete-kwu’ normally leads them in performing the rituals required for them.
The spirit means ‘Ushari’ they are said to constitute a world of their own and live as humans with organized form of life and authority. Some are associated with protection while others with destruction. The protective ones are harmless while destructive ones are called ‘red or black’ depending on the degree of destruction. They cause illness and death to people. The speakers and strangers are not allowed to visit such places especially at noon.
The general name for ancestors is ‘Okwu’, both male and female ancestors. They are believed to be interested in the affairs of the living members of their families. Ancestors are worshipped on sessional basis especially after the harvest and at the start of rainy seasons. Individual families organize generational ceremonies known as ‘Umuroso’ for those that died at very old age.
Agricultural Resources
The vegetation of the area falls under the guinea savannah type with prominent feature of tall grasses called ‘elephant grasses’. Among the natural resources of the people are timber, palm produce, agricultural products such as ginger, maize, millet, yam, and cassava.
1.4 Geographical Location
Kuturmi land is located on latitude 9.5 degree north and 10 degrees south and on longitude 7.5 degrees east and 8.0 degree west. The region lies to the western part of Kachia district headquarters. The region is bounded by the river Gwarara to the east and south where hippopotamus are found and to the north and west by Kadara tribe. In the northern part of the region is a range of hills called ‘Apan-okung and at the central location is another range of mountains called Kankan hills. The kilometers between Kachia Local Government to Awon village where the standard language of the speakers is spoken, is about 20 kilometers (20kms).
1.5 Genetic Classification of Kuturmi Language
A genetic classification is a sub-group of all relevant languages into genetic nodes, meaning group of languages in each of which one language is more closely related to the other than to any language inside the group. Therefore, genetic classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from common ancestors and the method used in classifying them is based on the resemblances found in elements of languages.
According to Ruhlen (1987: 1) ‘the idea that groups of languages that share certain systematic resemblance have inherited those similarities from a common origin, is the basis for ‘genetic classification’. Therefore, Kuturmi language can be classified under Kada sub-group of Benue Congo.
Source: Ruhein (1987: 1).
1.6 Scope and Organization of Study
This research work describes the aspects of Kuturmi phonology. It examines the sound system and patterns of Kuturmi language and the phonological process that are found in the language.
Chapter one focuses on the historical background, geographical location, socio-cultural profile, genetic classification as well as the theoretical framework for the study. The research methodology used is also included in this chapter. Chapter two presents the sounds, types of syllable and syllable processes of Kuturmi language. It also deals with the charts of both consonant and vowel sounds. Chapter three examines the phonological processes like assimilation, deletion, insertion, nasalization and vowel harmony that are attested in the language. Chapter four presents the tone and tonological processes of the language. It also gives detailed information on the types of tone attested in Kuturmi language. Chapter five concludes and summarizes the work. Further findings and recommendations are also included in this chapter.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework adopted for this research work is Generative Phonology (GP). This theoretical framework is a theory that builds on the insights of taxonomic phonemics while remodeling the focus of phonological analysis. Generative Phonology focuses on three fundamental issues in language which are linguistic intuition, foreign accent and speech error. The goal of this theoretical framework is to express the link between sounds and utterance that are present in a language. Generative phonology view speech as sequences of discrete segments which are complex of a particular set of phonetic features and the simultaneous and sequential combinations of these features are subjects to a set of specific constraint found in this research work.
Hyman (1975:19) describes generative phonology as the description of how phonological rules can be converted into phonological representation and to capture the distinctive sounds in contrast in a language. Therefore, in this research work, we shall consider how phonological representation is converted into phonetic representation through phonological rules.
According to (kenstowicz 1994:8), phonetic representation indicates how the lexical items are to be realized in speech. Sommerstein (1977:115) also says that it is characterized by ‘a degree of narrowness such that any two sounds that are distinguished in any human language are differently represented. For example, in Yoruba language, we have words like;
[ìjàwó] ‘Wife’
[ajé] ‘world’
[כmכ] ‘child’
The phonetic representations are [ ìjàwó] , [ ajé ] , [כmכ]
Structure of Generative of Phonology
According to Oyebade (2004:11), generative phonology assumes three general components. The underlying representation, the phonetic representation and the phonological rules. Generative phonology proposes that utterances can be profitably analysed based on two levels of representations which are underlying level called ‘UR’ and phonetic or surface level.
Phonological Representation
Oyebade (2004:11) says phonological or underlying representation is assumed to be an abstract representation existing in the linguistic competence of the native speakers. At this level, items with variant meanings have identical representations. For instance, the forms of negation prefix in English language having the same meaning are accounted for:
e.g. (indirect) in __ /indərəkt/
(illegible) il ___ / iledзebl/
(impossible) ir ___ /impƆsəbl/
(incomplete) iŋ ___ /iŋkכmpli:t/
(imbalance) im ___ /imbæləns/
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules are directives which join underlying forms on the surface forms. As Hyman (1975) points out, they are derivational sequence of items from an underlying level to a phonetic level. They are regarded as predictable rules. For example, the data below in Yoruba language shows how phonological rules assimilate nasal segment to the place of articulation of the following segment.
ń-bò ḿbƆ ‘is coming’
ń -bà ḿbà ‘is perching’
ń -tò ńtò ‘is arranging’
ń -tà ńtá ‘is selling’
3) ń- kí ήkí ‘is greeting’
ń- kà ήkà ‘is reading’
Three rules are accounted for in this phenomenon.
Rule 1. An alveolar nasal becomes a bilabial nasal before a voiced bilabial stop at morpheme boundary.
ŋ→m -b [+nas] _ +cons +cons -cont
+ant +ant +ant
+cor -cor -cor
+nas +nas +voiced Rule 2. An alveolar nasal becomes an alveolar nasal before a morpheme, beginning with a voiceless alveolar stop.
n→n − t [+nas] +cons +cons +cont
+ant +ant +ant
+cor +cor +cor +nas +nas -voiced
Rule 3. An alveolar nasal changes to velar nasal velar it occurs at morpheme boundary before a velar stop.
n→ŋ − k [+nas] ___ +cons +cons +cont
+ant -ant −ant
+cor -cor −cor
+nas +nas -voiced
Distinctive Features
Halle and Clements (2004:22) point out that the sets of articulatory and acoustic features sufficient to define and distinguish one from the other is the great majority of the speech sounds used in languages of the world. This theory of phonological features is concerned with the discovery and explanation of generalization about the phonological behavior of phonological segments both in isolation, in sequence or as member of a segment. There are two major criteria that potential features must meet to be admitted as distinctive features. These criteria are phonetic specifiability and morphophonemic relevance. On the basis of these criteria, generative phonologists identified twenty distinctive features as the only linguistically relevant features of the human vocal production which can be loosely classified in terms of :
Major class features (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant)
Place of articulation features (anterior, coronal, labial).
Tongue body features (high, low, back, ATR/ tense).
Manner of articulation feature (continuant)
Lip feature (rounded).
Acoustic feature (strident).
State of glottis feature (voiced, spread, constricted).
Others (nasals, laterals, distributed).
For instance, in Yoruba language, the following feature can be used to distinguished vowels with the use of binary features that is, to determine if a sound is present or absent.
1.8.1 Data Collection
Samarin (1965:45) says that the kind of corpus a field researcher obtains is determined by the purpose and the techniques he adopts in his data. The two types of data collection methods suggested by Samarian are the informant method and introspective method. The informant method and frame technique was used in this research while the native speaker served as a source of information as well as the means of evaluation of all sounds and tones present in the language. The introspective method involves the linguist serving as his/her informant. It describes a situation whereby the linguist, or investigator is working on his/her native or second language. The two informants that kindly engaged in the development of this project are Mr Jonathan Shekarau (42years old), an assistant headmaster in kuturmi and Mr Sunday Dogo Danmadammi (32years old) headmaster.
1.8.2 Data Analysis
All the data obtained in the language were written, transcribed and recorded using a sixty minute cassette and a tape recorder in the evenings after their farming work. The classification of the data was done through parts of speech namely: Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Conjunctions. All these reflect parts of the body, household items kinship terms, colour terms, numerals. We also analyzed information through frame techniques.
1.9.1 Phonemes
Phonemes are sounds that constitutes a difference in the meaning of words in a language. Its an abstracts linguistic unit that brings about a change in a given language. Phonemes can be identified in three ways namely, minimal pars, complementary distribution and analogous environment. For instance in minimal pairs of English language, phonemes are members of the smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish one utterance from another. e.g. /bat/, /hat/, /cat/, /rat/. The four words change in meaning at the initial position. Therefore, the phonemes are /b/, /h/, /c/ and /r/.
1.9.2 Allophones
According to Ladefoged (1993:40), ‘the variants of the phoneme that occur in detailed phonetic transcription are known as ‘allophones’. They are generated as a result of applying the phonological rules to the segments in the underlying forms of words. It can also be described as conditional variants of phoneme generated by phonological conditioning. They are usually represented in a squared brackets. For example in English language allophones are derived from voiceless alveolar fricative that is phoneme /s/. Observe the data below:
Lip – s ‘lips’
KLp – s ‘kLps’
ræt – s ‘rats’
rib – z ‘ribs’
rכɖ – z ‘rods’
ræg – z ‘rags’
æʃ – iz ‘ashes’
dʒ^dʒ -iz ‘judges’
ʧʒ:ʧ -iz ‘churches’
From the example above, the plural suffix in (1) remains voiceless if the preceding consonant is voiceless while in (2 and 3) the plural suffix changes to voiced if the preceding consonant is voiced. The allophones in the data are [z] and [iz] . derived from phoneme /s/.
[z] – before voiced sounds
/S/ [iz] – before voiced sound
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ASPECTS OF KUTURMI MORPHOLOGY
Title Page———i
Certification——–ii
Dedication———iii
Acknowledgement——-iv
Abstract ———vi
Table of Content——–vii
Chapter One
1.0 Introduction ——-1
1.1 Statement of Problem——4
1.2 Purpose of the Study——5
1.3 Significance of Study——8
1.4 Limitation——–9
1.5 Scope of Study——-11
Chapter Two
2.0 Review of Related Literature —-12
2.6 Summary of Literature Review—- 19
Chapter Three
3.0 Research Methodology and Procedure—22
3.1 Population ——–22
3.2 Sample and Sampling Technique—-22
3.3 Validation of the Instrument —-23
3.4 Reliability of the Instrument —–23
3.5 Data Analysis——-23
Chapter Four
4.0 Presentation and Discussion of Result—24
4.1 Analysis and interpretaion of Data—25
4.2 Discussion of Results——38
Chapter Five
5.0. Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation –40
5.1 Summary——–40
5.2 Conclusion——–41
5.3 Recommendation——42
References ———45
Appendix 1——–47
Appendix ———50
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08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420