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IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

admin — Wed, 23 Aug 2023 17:10:49 +0000

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BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!

INFORMATION:

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IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ABSTRACT

This project work is brought up to investigate the impact played by agricultural extension agent in the development of agriculture in the nation using Egor Local Government Area of Edo State as a case study. Four research questions were raise to capture the impacts played by agricultural extension agents and questionnaires is used to elicit information from the respondents which are farmers in the study area. the questionnaire is divided into two part, part A and B. the part A was set up to ask questions on the personal information of the respondents while section B was to ask questions that will answer the research questions asked in chapter one of this project. Multistage random sampling is used to select the respondents. Hundred (100) respondents are randomly selected and used for the study. The questionnaire was given to the project supervisor to proof read before administering it. The questionnaire was collated and simple percentage method was used to analyze the collated questionnaires and the results were presented in chapter four of the project. The recommendation made are, the agricultural extension agents to farmers ratio should be work upon. There should be considerable number of assigned farmer to agricultural extension agents so as to foster, learning or there should be more employment of specialist to carryout agricultural extension service, more time should be allocated to training or teaching of farmers as some of the farmers are late adopters, time of visitation should be more frequent so as to instigate encouragement from the agricultural extension agents to the farmers. If this is worked upon, it will be very hard for the farmer to forget what they have been taught.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Title

Table of contents

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Background to the Study

Statement of problem

Objective of the study

Significant of the study

Scope of the study

Basic assumption

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE

Research methodology

Design of study

Area of study

Population of the study

Sample and samplings techniques

Research instrument

Administration of research instrument

Method of data Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR

Data analysis

CHAPTER FIVE

Summary

Implication of findings

Recommendations

REFERENCES

QUESTIONNAIRES

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Agricultural extension has often been conceptualized as an education process, which promotes learning it uses the combined findings of biological sciences and the principles of social science to bring about changes in knowledge, skill attitude and practices in and out of school setting (Ileubaoje 2004). Eremie (2005) postulated that an agricultural extension services has a lot play in ensuring that Nigeria achieves the million development goals.

It was these perceived important roles of agricultural extension that informed the establishment of the agricultural development programme (ADPs). With the re-organization and strengthening of the extension agent of the ADPS, along training and visits line in 2006, a number of activities were initiated so as to ensure that the seven features of the trainings and visits are implemented. These have led to a change in the roles performed by the extension workers thereby resulting in some level of satisfaction among both extension workers and their clients (Ajuwon 2006). It is also worth noting that despite the tremendous achievements of the agricultural sector in Nigeria, the ADPs have been besotted by a myriad of problems, especially with the terminal end of the counterpart funding by the World Bank. These problems range from the Nona rail ability of facilities necessary for effective implementation and functioning of extension workers to poorly motivated staff resulting in low morale, low level of role perception and poor performance of extension workers (Banmeke and Ajayi 2005) Chikwendu et al, (2007) noted that in recent years, there have been indications of ineffectiveness in the extension agent of the ADPs.

The goal of every manager is to increase production and efficiency to obtain maximum result for the organization motivation for better performance depends on job satisfaction, achievement, recognition and professional growth (Adeniyi, 2001). The rural area is the predominant food and fibre producing sector of the Nigeria society and all natural resources which constitute the wealth of a nation are obtained of the rural areas. The importance of the rural in Nigeria also his in the mere fact that over 70% of the people live and derive their livelihood from there. The state of the rural areas in Nigeria’s is determined by a combination of methods which include available social, physical and institutional infrastructures as well as the people’s level of living including their levels of perceived deprivation and satisfaction with current level of living.

The rural areas in Nigeria is characterized by lack of public infrastructure, sub-standard education, poor health services and low agricultural productivity leading to poor standard of living for the majority. The agricultural extension agent in recent years has however played a significant role in improving agricultural production in Nigeria through advisory agent and adequate access to information on improved techniques of production agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in ensuring the awareness and subsequent adoption of the contemporary methods of agricultural management various extension teaching methods have been employed to make sure that the technologies get to the end users prominent among there is the training and visit system of the agricultural development programme. The central principle or idea of the extension strategy is to produce competent and well- informed extension agents who will frequently and regularly visit farmers with relevant technical messages and bring farmers problems to research. The system of extension entails that each extension agent is required to regularly visit the farmers/farmer’s group with relevant messages that are specific to the farm practices taking place in the field at that point in time.

Feed back is also taken by the extension agents from farmers to the research station. The extension agent operates from the back drop belief that increased agricultural productivity depends primarily upon acceptance of improved cultural and technological change at the rural farm level and that peasant farmers can achieve improved production only if they adopt recommended to agricultural practices in place of traditional over. Successful adoption of improved agricultural practices is predicated upon rural farmer’s acquiring the required knowledge and understanding of these technologies. This will improve productivity and rais4e the living standards of the farmers who are the beneficences of the agent (Lawal, Bodo Toriminobia Makanjuola (2006) the efficiency of technologies generated and disseminated however, depends on effective adoption of the technologies by the end-users.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The failure of the various extension delivery approaches in developing counties to effectively engineer significant and sustainable agricultural growth has become a major concern to all stakeholders, including the donor community.

The concerns have been fueled lately by the wave of pluralism, market liberalization and globalization sweeping across the world and giving rise to initiatives that will enhance efficiency and effectiveness of not only the sub-components of extension delivery but the entire system of technology generation, dissemination and use. With a rapidly expending population, environmental degradation, political instability, economies failure and the declining budget, re-thinking the way agricultural technology is delivered to farmers has become necessary. This re-thinking engineered the way we have to investigate the impact of agricultural extension agent in the development of agricultural in Egor local government of Edo-state.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This study is set up to investigate the impact played by agricultural extension in the development of agriculture in the nation using Egor Local Government Area of Edo State as a case study.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Knowing the impact played by agriculture it will go a long way to encourage both the individual, government and NGO’s to see reason why they have to give more attention to agricultural extension in the country. Also, in an attempt to evaluate the impact of agricultural extension, problems faced by agricultural extension will be look into and possible solution will be suggested which if duly followed will heap in educating and alerting existing agricultural extension agents as a result new agents on what to expect as an extension agent.

RESEARCH QUESTION

1. What is people’s Understanding about agricultural extension?

2. Have you been visited by extension agent?

3. What impact does this visit plays in your agricultural life style?

4. What are the problems militating the best usage of agricultural extension?

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study will look into the impact of agricultural extension on the development of agricultural in the country and the case is Egor Local Government Area of Edo-state. The populations for this study comprise of the farmers in the local government as well as agricultural extension agents.

HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)

After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to

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Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 0046579864

Bank: GTBank.

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 3139283609

Bank: FIRST BANK

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ASSESSMENT OF EXTENSION WORKERS PERFORMANCE IN OVIA NORTH EAST

admin — Wed, 23 Aug 2023 17:00:17 +0000

ATTENTION:

BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!

INFORMATION:

YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR

YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720

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ASSESSMENT OF EXTENSION WORKERS PERFORMANCE IN OVIA NORTH EAST

ABSTRACT

Despite the existence of relevant information to increase Agricultural Productivity, many farmers are yet to receive such information due to the limited number of extension workers, particularly in developing nations like Nigeria. Hence, this study was carried out to assess extension workers and practice of extension principles in Edo and Delta States.

A multistage sampling techniques was adopted in randomly selecting 80 and 120 respondents from Four Local Government Areas each with high concentration of extension workers in Edo and Delta States respectively. Data was analyzed using frequency count, percentage and mean, while hypotheses were tested using Pearson Correlation Coefficient, T-test and Chi-square test.

Result showed that majority (46.3%) and 42.5%) were over 49-50 years and above, (52.5%) and (87.5%) were males, (83.8%) and (51.7%) were married, with (62.5%) and (35.0%) were literate, (57.5%) and (56.7%) have 10-15 years working experience. Extension workers get information on their job through farm visit (x=3.81) and (x=3.69), home visit (x=3.71) and (x=2.86) in Edo and Delta States. Some of the constraints the respondents faced (x=2.50) were financial problems, farmers culture, lack of motivation, transportation problem, leadership problem in mostly Edo and fairly in Delta States. But the total pooled analyzed result showed that respondents source of information and in the discharge of their job, respondent were not too faced with problems.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0INTRODUCTION

Information and Communication have always mattered in Agricultural. Communication may be defined as giving or exchanging information, option and idea by writing, speech or visual means (Ganguly, 2006). Even since people have grown crops, raised livestock, and caught fish, they have sought information from, one another. What is the most effective planting strategy on steep scope? Where can I acquire a land title? Who is paying the highest price at the market? How can I participate in the government credit program? Producers rarely find it easy to obtain answers to such questions (Ganguly 2006). Up dated information allow the farmer to cope with and even benefit from these changes of weather patterns and soil conditions and epidemics of pest and diseases, but providing such information can be challenging because of the highly localize nature of agriculture.

Agriculture is the most vital sector for information and communication technology intervention most especially that majority of the population around the world rely on agriculture to live sustainably (Alexander 2009). Information and communication technology for development, agriculture provides our most basic human needs that are food clothing and shelter. Even since people have this natural way of thing on how thing can survive and make a living by harvesting crops used for food and fibres make a living by harvesting crops used for food and poultry that produce animal product like wool, dairy and eggs, catfish or any edible marine life for food or for sale, forestry and logging to grow and harvest timber to build shelter with agriculture, people learned and acquire knowledge through sharing information with each but of course this is not enough as there are also changes and developments in agriculture. Farmers should be able to take hold of updated information like price, production techniques, services, storage, processing and the like. Evidently, update information with the change and developments in agriculture can be addressed by the effective use of information communication and technology. (Edward Elgar 2004).

There is increasing evidence that infrastructure such as telecommunications helps to reduce poverty and provide opportunities to people in developing countries (Bertolini, 2005).making information readily ad cheaply available can enhance production, increase bargaining power and incomes, and ultimately lead to poverty reduction and economic development. Furthermore, making information readily and cheaply available can enhance production by enabling farmers to plant and harvest at appropriate times (weather information), improve the functioning of credit markets (by facilitating social capital as through increased communications farmers develop and gain trust and reputations), facilitate access to more efficient technologies (through finances obtained through increased credit ratings/worthiness), and in the long run, transform production processes through more rapid and diffuse spread of technological innovations amongst a broader range of interacting agents – consumers (with different tastes and preferences leading to product differentiation or new product development), sellers (of inputs products and services) , traders and processors (Eggleston et al., 2002).

Poor families in the rural areas have limited or no access at all to information and communication technology. However, these people also needs access to information communication and technology, since this technology would help lessen their expenses on their resources like time, labor, energy and physical resources, thus, would have a greater position impact on their livelihoods and income, the lives of the rural poor could be alleviated through the application of information and communication technology by supplying information to inform the policies, institutions, and processes that affect their livelihood options. In the advent of ICT, it offers new opportunities to support development of the rural livelihoods. It strengthened the production and increased market coordination which is the main processes that can contribute to the future opportunities of the sector and create income for the people that depend on it. (Songan, 2004).

Farmers who have better access to information and communication have access to price information, access to agriculture information, access to agriculture information, access to national and international market, increasing production efficiency, creating conducive policy environment through an informed extension agent or worker who have a broader experience. Agriculture is facing new and severe challenges in its right with rising food prices that have push over 40 million into poverty since 2010 (World Bank 2011). The growing global population, expected to hit a billion by 2050, has heighted the demand for food and place pressure on already fragile resources, feeding the population will require a 70% increases in Food production (F.AO. 2009). Most importantly, the democratization of information and science facilitated by ICT is also contributing to agriculture and rural development more broadly, using conventional information and communication tools. Majority of extension workers have attained adulthood, a stage that is very critical, at which human beings should be controlled, applying basic skills and knowledge.

Agricultural extension is a professional field of information system aimed at educating people in their own context and life situation and acquires knowledge and skills on how to effectively deal with such problems so as to improve their living condition. (Ashimolowo 2002). Adopted agricultural extension system is the training and visit (T and V) agricultural extension system. It was developed for the World Bank by (Benor 2002) and aid at improving the rural farmer’s productivities through efficient agricultural extension service delivery in the developing countries. The system was introduced into the Nigeria Agricultural system in the mid-70s when it was tried in three encloses of Gasau, Funtua and Gombe, the recorded success from the trial led to state wide implementation of the extension system, Agricultural this is not enough as there are also changes and developments in agricultural development programme (ADP), to reach out to all the rural farmers across the country, each state is structure into zones, blocks and cells. The extension personnel are as grouped as zonal manager, block extension supervisor/argent and the subject matter specialists. The extension agents are expected to cover between 8 and 10 cells where they relate directly with the farmers, reaching out to them with extension services at interval of two research institution base for the extension workers is the research institution where innovation and technical information to serve the farmers are generated, in Nigeria there are eighteen research institutes with each of them having specific research mandate (Lawal Adebowale 2002).

One of the basic functions of agricultural extension remains the dissemination of useful agricultural information from research to the end-users. The mass media have been greatly used in delivering this information. But the information boom of this century requires that worthwhile strategies of communication be developed and utilized. In order to meet up with the information explosion trend, agricultural extension needs to intensify efforts to acquire the necessary information and communication technology facilities that are available. The categories of persons who should have access to information technologies for proper direction are the extension managers and supervisors. They know enough to influence decisions in their organizations. Waldron et al., (1997) stated that an extension programme manager is the person that vested with formal authority over an organization or one of its sub units. He or she has status that leads t various inter-personal relations and from this comes access to information. Information enables the manager to devise strategies, make decisions and implement action. VITA (1995) pointed out that modern communication techniques and facilities, which ensure uninterrupted access to large amount of agricultural information, have become necessary in hiding the distinction between urban and rural dwellers. These modern communication techniques are generally referred to as Information technology (IT) facilities. Moll (1982) cited in Madu and Adeniran (2000) classified IT into two groups viz high and low. The low technology includes equipment and machines like typewriters, offset printing machines, microform readers, projectors, stapler, paper cutter, perforators, catalogue, radio, telephone, television sets.

The high information technology, on the other hand, consists of the various means of obtaining or transferring information using computer, telecommunications and microelectronics. Nzeakor (1991) declared that information technology could help rural communities to leapfrog from peasant farming to modern agriculture.

Agricultural extension has a major role to play in the area of information and communication technology. This is because, as an educational outlet that is dynamic in its dissemination delivery system, a more cosmopolitan outlook is needed. This explains why the modern technology gadgets are inevitable. Considering the fact that we are in the information technology age, extension needs to be in tune with the application of information technology to access and utilize the international network system. Ekemode (2000) observed that agriculture has moved through the various phases of development as society transforms into modernity. He therefore noted that the Information technology era, involves the application of satellite technology for obtaining agricultural information through the internet.

Agricultural extension workers are trained personnel who are responsible for transfer of information and technology to both rural and urban farmers’, they play other roles like helping farmer, develop practical application of research knowledge to farmer’s farm and families. But in the course of doing all these operations, agricultural extension principles must be appropriately applied. Agricultural extension principle are laws and rules discoursed by extension workers or researcher and proven by years of experience that now serve as guide law for extension workers as stated by (Ashimilowo 2002), the principle focuses on the workers with a view to empowering themselves to be able to solve and meet the needs of respondent.

The principles are:

The extension work must be based on the needs and interest of the people.

Extension work should be based on the knowledge, skills, belief and value of the people.

Extension encourages people to take action and work out their own solution to their problem, rather than receiving ready-made solution.

An extension programme should be flexible so that necessary changes can be made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions and need of the people.

Extension work should base on full utilization of local leadership.

Extension should be a co-operative action involving participating activity in which people co-operate to pursue a common cause.

Extension should be base on constraint evaluation, the effectiveness of the work is measure in terms of the changes brought in knowledge, skills and attitude and the adoption of change behavior of the people.

In conclusion, communication bridge the gap between extension agent and agriculture, thereby making it easier for assessing agricultural technology, and also a gap between extension agent/workers and basic information needed.

Problem Statement

Throughout the developing world, it is a known fact, that farmers already have a lot of knowledge about their environment and their farming system (Ahmed 1974). Extension can bring them other knowledge and information which they do not have example. Cause of damage to particular crops, general principles of pest control, or the way manure and compost are broken down to provide plant nutrient (Ahmed 1974). The application of such knowledge often means that the farmer has to acquire new skills of various kind, the transfer of this knowledge and skill to farmer and their families is an important extension activities and the extension agents must prepare himself thoroughly (Foster 1962). He must find out which skill or areas of knowledge are lacking among the farmers in his areas.

This study sought to examine extension workers personnel characteristics, channel frequently use in sourcing and disseminating agricultural extension principles, and possible strategies for practicing extension principles.

It also cut across the level of application of extension principles and examines the level of motivation on the use of extension principles by respondent. In addition accessing the major constraint in the use of agricultural extension principles.

This research tends to provide answers to the below:

The questions now are:

What are the personnel characteristics of extension workers in Edo and Delta State?

What are the channels, respondent frequently use sourcing and disseminating agricultural extension principles on their job?

What are the respondent perceives important and improvement strategies for practice of agricultural extension principles?

What are the motivational factors for the uses of agricultural extension principles by the respondent?

To what extent do extension workers apply extension principles in their daily operation?

What are the constraints in the use of agricultural extension principles by respondent?

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to assess extension workers’ sources and practice of agricultural extension principles in Edo and Delta States, Nigeria.

The Specific Objectives were to:

examine the personnel characteristics of extension workers in Edo and Delta State;

identify channel, respondents frequently use in sourcing and application of agricultural extension principles on their job;

ascertain respondent perceived important and improvement strategies for practices of agricultural extension principles;

access the extent to which extension workers apply extension principles in their daily operations in the study area;

identify motivational factors for respondents use of agricultural extension principle; and

identify constraint in the use of agricultural extension principles by respondent.

1.3 Hypothesis of the Study

There is no significant relationship between extension workers personal characteristics and channel frequently used in sourcing and disseminating agricultural extension principles.

There is no significant relationship between extension workers personal characteristics and perceived improvement strategies for practice of agricultural extension principles.

There is no significant relationship between personal characteristics of extension workers and the extent to which extension workers apply extension principles in their daily operation.

There is no significant relationship between the extent to which extension workers apply extension principles and channel respondent frequently use in sourcing and disseminating agricultural extension principles.

There is a significant relationship between constraints in the use of agricultural extension principles and the channel respondent frequently use in sourcing and disseminating agricultural extension principles.

There is no significant relationship between constraint in the use of extension principles and the characteristics of extension workers (personal)

There is no significant relationship between motivational factors for use of agricultural extension principles and the constraints in the use of agricultural extension principles.

There is no significant relationship between improvement strategies for practice of extension principles and motivational factors for use of agricultural extension principles.

1.4 Justification of the Study

Over the years various studies have shown that there is an existing gap between available knowledge of improved technology and the actual practice (Odefadehan 205). The extension workers are responsible for the dissemination of information about these improved technology to farmers in order to bridge the gap, therefore, their role is very essential, about the improved technology before they disseminate those information to the farmers, in order to find ways to bridge this existing gap in improved technology and the actual practice, this study sought to investigate the information needs of the extension workers, identify the present and intended sources of information, determine the social economic characteristic of the respondent, determine the effectiveness of these information sources presently used and the constraints encountered by the respondent in the practice of extension principles.

This study is of present day relevance to encourage extension workers and identify little lapses in the sources of improved technology and practice of extension principles, because useful information bring-forth increases productivity in agriculture. Essentially, this study will hopefully add to the available literature, useful for academic research, and this would be very relevant to researchers in related topics.

HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)

After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to

08068231953 or 08168759420

(1) Your project topics

(2) Email Address

(3) Payment Name

(4) Teller Number

We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert

BANK ACCOUNTS

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 0046579864

Bank: GTBank.

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 3139283609

Bank: FIRST BANK

FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:

08068231953 or 08168759420

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CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

admin — Wed, 23 Aug 2023 16:54:59 +0000

ATTENTION:

BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!

INFORMATION:

YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR

YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720

WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720

CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

ABSTRACT

This work discusses challenges of agricultural extension agents in the development of practical agriculture in secondary schools

.A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among students and teachers from selected secondary schools. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.

Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis

It will be observed therefore that agricultural extension agents have a strong and significant development influence in the development of practical agriculture in secondary schools

TABLE OF CONTENT:

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4 Significance of the Study

1.5 Research Questions

1.6 Research Hypothesis

1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition

1.8 Assumptions

1.9 Limitations of the Study

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sources of Literature

2.2 The Review

2.3 Summary of Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Method

3.2 Research Design

3.3 Research Sample

3.4 Measuring Instrument

3.5 Data Collection

3.6 Data Analysis

3.7 Expected Result

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Data Analysis

4.2 Results

4.3 Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

5.2 Recommendations for Further Study

References

HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)

After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to

08068231953 or 08168759420

(1) Your project topics

(2) Email Address

(3) Payment Name

(4) Teller Number

We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert

BANK ACCOUNTS

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 0046579864

Bank: GTBank.

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

Account Number: 3139283609

Bank: FIRST BANK

FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:

08068231953 or 08168759420

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ANTHROPOMETRIC COMPARISM OF CEPHALIC INDICES BETWEEN YORUBA AND BENIN ETHNIC GROUPS

admin — Thu, 29 Jun 2023 15:25:14 +0000

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INFORMATION:

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ANTHROPOMETRIC COMPARISM OF CEPHALIC INDICES BETWEEN YORUBA AND BENIN ETHNIC GROUPS

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Anthropometry (from Greek anthropos, “man” andmetron, “measure”) refers to the measurement of the human individual.Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptions of body size and shape,it is the study of the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue. Actual stature, weight, and body measurements (including skinfolds and circumferences) will be collected for purposes of assessing growth, body fat distribution, and for the provision of reference data. Anthropometry is the single most universally applicable, inexpensive, and non-invasive method available to assess the size, proportions, and composition of the human body. Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. obesity epidemic), and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.

Cephalic index is a useful anthropometric parameter utilized in the determination of racial variations. It is also used to determine sexual differences especially in individuals whose identities are unknown. It is one of the clinical anthropometric parameters recognized in the investigation of craniofacial skeletal deformities and brain development because of its validity and practicality.

Cephalic index is the most frequently investigated craniofacial parameter as it utilizes the length and breadth of the head which are useful indices in the study of secular trend, it is used to measure the size of the head,cephalic index gives an idea of how genetic characters are transmitted between parents, offspring, and siblings. It is inherited in a unitary fashion,isolated or syndromiccraniosynostosis, primary microcephaly, and hydrocephalus are pathological disorders which manifest with abnormal cephalic indices in addition to other features.Several studies have been carried out to classify head shapes based on cephalic index into four internationally acceptable categories that include DOLICHOCEPHALIC (<74.9), MESOCEPHALIC (75–79.9), BRACHYCEPHALIC (80.0–84.9), and HYPERBRACHYCEPHALIC (85.0–89.9). A study has shown that the people of Gurung community of Nepal of India are brachycephalic with cephalic index of 80.42.Bhils and Barelas are mesocephalic (76.98 & 79.80). The Iranian people are predominantly brachycephalic and hyperbrachycephalic. The research aimed at comparing the cephalic index between the two genders in a selected population and at determining a baseline value of cephalic index which could be vital in forensic, anthropological, and clinical studies. Cephalic index is an important parameter useful in establishing racial and sexual dimorphism, data obtained from such measurements have been very useful in differentiating people of different ethnic backgrounds, nutritional status, and gender. Several measurable anthropometric parameters or variables have been developed over the years for establishing possible differences amongst different groups.Cephalic index is one of such very useful measurable anthropometric variables used in physical anthropology to determine geographical gender, age, and racial and ethnic variations. Comparison of changes in cephalic index between parents, offspring, and siblings gives clues to genetic transmission of inherited characters or traits which play a role in forensic science.

HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)

After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to

08068231953 or 08168759420

(1) Your project topics

(2) Email Address

(3) Payment Name

(4) Teller Number

We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert

BANK ACCOUNTS

Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI

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ANALYSIS OF SAVINGS AND INVESTMENT STRATEGIES AMONG CASSAVA PROCESSORS IN YEWA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OGUN STATE

admin — Thu, 29 Jun 2023 14:39:00 +0000

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ANALYSIS OF SAVINGS AND INVESTMENT STRATEGIES AMONG CASSAVA PROCESSORS IN YEWA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OGUN STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In Nigeria, agriculture has remained the largest sector of the economy. It generates employment for about 70% of the population and contributes about 40% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with crop accounting for 80%, livestock 13%, forestry 3% and fishery 4%. Agriculture accounts for over 70% of the non-oil export and provides over 80% of the food needs of the country (Adegboye,2004). Nigeria has a total land area of 98.3milion hectares, but at present, only about 34 million hectares or 48% are under cultivation. Agriculture in Nigeria is practiced at subsistent level and is characterized by numerous farmers operating several scattered small and fragmented plots of land using traditional methods such as land rotation, bush burning with the use of crude implements like hoes and cutlasses. According to Olawepo (2010), the majority of the rural populace in Nigeria either depends entirely on farming and farming activities for survival and generation of income, or depends on other non-farming activities to supplement their main source of income. Over 90% of the country’s local food production comes from small-scale farms. About 60% of the population earnstheir living from these small farms which are usually of the size of about 0.10-5.99 hectares (Olawepo,2010). It could then be seen that most farmers have limited resources, a factor that limits their productivity, income, savings and investment. In the midst of all these, farmers have resulted to a number of means to enhance their production and also to improve their well-being socio-economically. These options includes pooling their resources and working together as members of cooperative societies, through the use of loan and other services from microfinance or community banks; making daily, weekly or monthly contributions through the formation of small savings and thrift groups like Ajo-dida and Esusu or employing the method of risk diversification by engaging in the trading of other non-agricultural goods or in processing or value addition of agricultural produceinto finished goods with longer shelf-life as agro-processors – those into the process of producing or sourcing for agricultural produce and converting them into finished goods for consumption. In Nigeria, where rural farmers account for over 80% of the farmers in the country and produce 95% of the domestic food production in the country (Olashore,1998; Yusuf,2010), majority of rural households are small-scale farmers and as such, a significant part of their non-farm income comes from small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Rural entrepreneurs are characterized by poor access to credit, poor savings rate, risk and uncertainty, poor weather condition, focusing of information on technology and not on pricing. The inability of rural entrepreneurs to access credit has restricted their potential to expand their enterprises especially in diversifying into non-farm activities and end up with low income and hence, poor savings (Albu and Scott,2011). This has led to low standard of living and inability to break the vicious cycle of poverty for the rural dwellers. Savings is normally considered in economics as disposable income minus personal consumption expenditure. It could also be regarded as income that is not consumedimmediately by the purchase of goods and services. According to Azhar (2015),savings may be made in kind such as jewelry, land, livestock or dowry. It may still be in the form of currency notes deposited in banks or more often be hoarded. Savings are very imperative for supporting and developing rural industries.

They provide several benefits for households. Directly, saving could be used for investment. Indirectly, saving indicates repayment ability, also increase credit rating and as collateral in the credit market (Brata,2015). Savings is both a risk management strategy and determinant of magnitude of investment but its determinants and mobilization strategy are controversial issues in literature (Mkpado and Arene,2010). Ayanwale and Bamire (2010) claimed that saving behaviours of farmers in developing countries is less dependent on the absolute level of aggregate income, but more dependent on other factors on the relationship between current and expected income, the nature of business, household size, wealth and demographic factors like age. Adeyemo and Akala(2012),for instance, showed that there is a high degree of responsiveness of savings to change among fishermen in the riverine areas of Nigeria. On the other hand, investment could be considered as an act of laying out money in return for a future financial reward or the sacrifice of something now for the prospect of later benefits (Ajayi,2014).

According to Olofin (2011), investment is any form of producer durable that is capable of contributing to the production of goods and services. Investment spending or expenditure to him would be any form of outlay, either by individuals or corporate units as firms or institutions such as government, for the purchase of such durables. Therefore, investment in their context refers to the purchase of real tangible assets such as machines, factories or stock of goods and services for further use as opposed to present consumption. Investment is a process of exchanging income for assets or converting forms into productive economic unit based for higher return or higher rate of economic value in future period for the purpose of gaining income. Odoemenem(2011),however, was of the view that small scale farmers invested their savings in two major areas; the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. Investment in the agricultural sector or farm activity includes the purchase of fertilizer and chemicals hired labour and buying more land for farming while non-agricultural sector are mainly centered on education, trade expansion, building houses, dowry obligation and purchase of durable assets. In line with the above concepts, savings and investment in the rural economy appear to be in monetized and non-monetized forms. This could be attributed to the subsistent nature of the economy. This further implies that for any meaningful investment to be obtained, a sound saving mobilization has to be pursued. Although, when the increments and funds are spent on household expenditure, farming economy and economy growth tend to be jeopardized,adequate integration of savings and investment programmes into development strategies are capable of improving resource allocation, promoting equitable distribution of income and reducing credit delivery and recovering cost. The government, armed with the awareness of the contribution of savings and investment strategies among farmer cooperatives, agro-processors and SMEs to the economy, have been encouraged to establish programmes involved in loan schemes such as Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP), Cooperative Federation of Nigeria (CFN), Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) amongst others.

1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

There are several problems that affect the level of savings and investment strategies of agro-processors. While acknowledging that socio-economic characteristics of the agro-processors may vary from one occupation to another, recent studies like Adeyemo and Bamire (2015) suggest that socio-economic characteristics such as age, sex, farming experience, household size…etc, affect the level of savings and investment strategies among agro-processors. One of the problems confronting the development of the agricultural sector in Nigeria could be attributed to inadequate savings and investment by the small scale farmers (and agro-processors). Despite this problem, policy makers have not really drawn up adequate and comprehensive rural savings scheme that will ginger the farmers to invest their capital productively (Ogwanighie,2017). Many farmers (andagro-processors) in Nigeria have not been able to finance their businesses due to poor access to credit, poor savings rate, risk and uncertainty, poor weather condition among other difficulties, thereby resulting to other means of mobilizing savings and funds for investment such as cooperatives and other informal financial institutions. Odoemenem, et al. (2015) observed that farmers make use of informal financial sectors to mobilize savings to develop their rural communities. They further observed that rural farmers make use of informal financial institutions because they give them access to loans they cannot get from formal financial institutions due to lack of collateral. Though, this sector has its own prevalent problems such as inadequate capital base for operation, poor record keeping, crude accounting system, gross mismanagement; farmers still prefer them to banks. Recently, there has been an upsurge of interest among development economists, governments and international donor organizations to increase financial savings in developing countries, particularly in rural areas and among poor households. However, a large number of developing countries are unable to mobilize the potential savings of the non-corporate sector because the structure of their financial institutions, financial instruments and financial policies are not sound (Reardon,2010). In view of this, with major focus on cassava processors (those into fufu production), the questions of interest in this study are; · What are the socio-economic characteristics of the cassava processors in the study area? · What is the investment pattern of the cassava processors in the study area? · What are the existing income levels of the cassava processors in the study area? · What is the savings rate of the cassava processors in the study area? · What are the determinants of savings and investment among the cassava processors in the study area? This study attempts to provide answers to the questions identified.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to analyze or assess the savings and investment strategies of cassava processors using Yewa North Local Government Area as a study case. The specific objectives are to; · describe the socio-economic characteristics of the cassava processors in the study area. · describe the investment pattern of the cassava processors. · estimate the income level of the cassava processors. · determine the savings rate among the respondents. · estimate the determinants of savings and investment strategies among the respondents.

1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this study is centered on the importance of savings and investment and also the essence of savings and investment strategies as it concerns the cassava processors’ businesses. In developing countries, especially Nigeria, investments in agricultural production and its related activities have not been given expected priority, even among the farmers who come together as a group to assist each other, either through cooperatives or other informal means; and this can be attributed to some factors. Ayanwale and Bamire (2010) claimed that the saving behavior of cooperative farmers (cassava processors inclusive) in developing countries is less dependent on the absolute level of aggregate income and more dependent on the relationship between current and expected income, the nature of the business, household size, wealth and demographic variables among other related factors. However, Adeyemo and Bamire (2015) examined the pattern of savings and investment among cooperative farmers (or cassava processors in this case) in Southwestern Nigeria and reported that income, loan repayment and amount of money borrowed are significant variables that influenced saving pattern. This research study is set to help clear the air on savings and investment among farmers as well as cassava processors and also the determinants of the savings and investment strategies with regards to the available infrastructure on the study. Information from this research study on the analysis of savings and investment strategies among cassava processors could help policy makers and credit agencies for effective and efficient credit services delivery of loan schemes that could increase the production of agricultural produce and value-added finished goods as well as the general well-being of the cassava processors.

1.5. PLAN OF THE STUDY

This research study was divided into five chapters, with each chapter for a definite purpose. Chapter One consisted of the introduction which includes the background of the study, problem statement and research questions, objectives of the study, justification of the study and plan of the study respectively. Chapter Two covered the literature review and theoretical background. Chapter Three entailed the methodology and procedures that was involved in carrying out the research study. Chapter Four involved the empirical findings and the results of the findings. Chapter Five featured the summary of the findings, conclusion and recommendation.

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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF CASHEW PRODUCTS IN UDENU LOCAL AREA, ENUGU STATE

admin — Thu, 29 Jun 2023 14:33:44 +0000

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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF CASHEW PRODUCTS IN UDENU LOCAL AREA, ENUGU STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Cashew, known as Anacardium occidental is a native of Brazil and was introduced to Mozambique and then India in the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, as a means of controlling coastal erosion. It was spread within these countries with the aid of elephants that ate the bright cashew fruits along with the attached nut. The nut was too hard to digest and was later expelled with the droppings. It was not until the nineteenth century that plantations were developed and the tree then spread to a number of other countries in africa, Asia and Latin America.(Herringtton and coulter,2014). Cashew processing using manual techniques, was started in India in the first half of the twentieth century. It was exported from there to the wealthy western markets, particularly the United States. In the 1960s some of the producing countries in East Africa began to process nuts domestically rather than sending them to India for processing. This allowed them to benefit from the sale of both processed nuts and the extracted cashew nut shell liquid. Cashew kernels are ranked as either the second or third most expensive nut trade in the United States. The four main producing regions in the world are India, Nigeria, Brazil and Tanzania. World production of cashew nut grew rapidly during 1950s and 1960s, reaching a peak of 624000 tonnes of raw nuts in 2013. Three countries India, Mozambique and Tanzania accounted for the majority of this production while smaller industries have developed in Brazil, Kenya and several other African countries. There was a total decline in world production, which continued till 1980s (The clipper, 2014). The reason for the decline is due to the decreased production in Mozambique and Tanzanian, since production in Mozambique during the late 1980s and 1990s, production picked up and continued to increase gradually.(Jaffee and Morton,2016). In 2010, to be precise, world cashew production exceeds 1.2 million tones. Asia and Africa countries produced 0.6 million and 0.4 million tones respectively (Herrington and Coulter 2014). Africans overall production steadily increased during the 1950s and 1960s until mid 1970s when it was the prime producer of cashew nuts. Then, in 1975, the production started to decline throughout the continent due to combination of some factors based on biological, political and agronomic basis(Andrighetti et al,2014).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Recent study found that cashews are well-known, popular and widely consumed by urban populations in Nigeria and West Africa at large. Though perhaps not everyday food, cashew kernels are a mature product in urban West African Markets associated with quality and luxury and widely available in urban settings. Indeed cashews may be consumed in certain upper-class segments of African society with greater frequency than in Europe or America due to a lack of wide range of substitution with similar associations. The semi – industrial faculties supplying the local market have relatively high fixed cost (in terms of building and equipment) and little consistency in their level of operational use. Because the facilities are mostly run at reduced or seasonal production capacity and staff do not have sufficient training or systems to optimize productivity, the cost of operation are higher relative to export oriented faculties. The larger facilities often (but not always) have better access to financial and usually have acquired their working capital at better interest rates. As this study pointed out, most processors and/or roasters/salters distribute their products themselves. Given the small size of the factories and limited number of staff, distribution and marketing is not specialized or approached in a strategic or full-time manner. Limited availability of packaging equipment and materials in the study area and relatively high prices drive up final product prices for ready to eat cashews. Prices are also high due to the low prices paid for broken nuts (if they are sold at all), which forces processors to charge higher prices for whole nuts. Broken nuts comprise 20 – 40% of production for most cashew processors. Cashew has many uses ranging from fruits known as apple to its nuts which is the kernel to the liquid known as cashew Nut shell liquid {CNSL}. The extraction of the nuts, notwithstanding, to the collection of the liquid from the apple and the extraction of the liquid from the CNSL makes for the full economic utilization of the products. Cashew processing and marketing in the study area have these major problems. These includes the following The cashew apples are sold in the local markets resulting in under valuation of the products in monetary terms. And also cashew kernels are normally extracted by roasting which causes breakages during the cracking and thereby reduces the quantity when grading the cashew nut shell liquid {CNSL} is also wasted away in the process of roasting cashew production is seasonal and its produces only once in a year. Therefore, how can cashew products be properly utilized to reduce wastage and increase the economic value of all its products ranging from the nuts to the apple and also the liquid from the CNSL. How can one attain commercial ways of processing and marketing which will increase mass production for continental and global consumption. How can one acquire cashew processing equipment at affordable price.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to analyze through research in the production, processing and marketing of cashew products in the study area. The specific objectives are to:

i) Identify the cashew products;

ii) Ascertain the techniques used in cashew products processing;

iii) Access the channels in which the product are marketed;

iv) Identify the problems of processing and marketing of cashew products and;

v) Make recommendation based on the findings.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This research finding was chosen for Udenu Local Government area of Enugu State as a result of the abundance of cashew producers, processors and marketers in the study area. Cashew has diverse uses and its importance can not be over emphasized. Cashew nut is a popular snack, and its rich flavour means that it is often eaten on its own, highly salted or sugared. Trees are used in the control of coastal erosion. Cashew apple is eaten fresh which is high in vitamin. Dried cashew trees can also serve as fuel for cooking food. In addition, cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL), a by product of processing cashew, is mostly composed of anacardic acids. These acids have been used effectively against tooth absceses due to their lethality to bacteria. These products need to be fully utilized for maximum production and minimize waste. Also this study will help to access the techniques used in the processing of cashew products and the grading system used in the standardization of products. The study also helps to know the products being processed and marketed in the study area. The marketing system available to them and also the economic value attached to the sales. Therefore, I hope that the study if carefully examined shall help in the utilization of cashew products as studied and analyzed through this research work.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study or researches were limited by many factors: firstly, the time allowed for this study was short compared to the volume of work requirement to bring out a comprehensive research work. Secondly, finance was one of the major factors to reach the respondents in their various locations in one way or the other requires some costs. Language barrier is another limitation. Many of the respondents were illiterate who could not read out the questions from the questionnaire. Some of the respondents were also griped with fear and doubt about the genuineness of the research. The system of their measurement lacked appropriateness. For example, the products marketed or processed could not be accurately measured. All these really made the research face a lot of inconsistence in obtaining data. In spite of all these limitations, the work or result of this analysis is reliable, accurate and valid.

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THE EFFECT OF NEEMBIOPESTICIDE ON GRASSHOPPERS

admin — Thu, 29 Jun 2023 14:17:40 +0000

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THE EFFECT OF NEEMBIOPESTICIDE ON GRASSHOPPERS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Grasshoppers and locusts include insects in different families belonging to the super family Acridoidea and the order Orthoptera Grasshoppers and locusts are distinguishable from other orthopterans primarily on the basis of their external morphology. The most obvious and distinctive features of grasshoppers and locusts are their enlarged hind legs and their relatively short and thick antennae. There are more than 350 grasshopper and locust species recorded from the Sahel (Mestre, 2014), of which about 30 are considered to be of regular or irregular pest status (Popov, 2014). Grasshoppers and locusts occur in a wide variety of habitats, from low-elevation, hot, dry deserts to high-elevation, moist environment. Most species occur in arid and semi-arid environment, and it is in the warm semi-arid and arid desert grasslands that grasshopper and locust species diversity and population densities are the greatest They are relatively large, active insects and require structurally open habitats where they are free to move, and where sunlight levels are high enough to enable them to maintain high metabolic rates. Habitat specificity varies considerably among species of grasshoppers and locusts. Some species such as SchistocercagregariaForskål and Oedaleussenegalensis Krauss (Orthoptera: Acrididae) are typically common in desert environments but can be found in a wide variety of habitats over wide geographic and altitude ranges when outbreaks occur. Other species are much more restricted or specific to particular types of habitats .Grasshoppers tend to feed on particular plants that occur in their preferred habitats.

1.1 OTHER LOCUSTS AND GRASSHOPPERS

Other important locust and grasshopper species occur mainly in Africa, but also in the Middle East. They include among others Zonocerusvariegatus L. and Kraussaria anguilifera Krauss (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae); the Egyptian grasshopper Anacridiumaegyptium L. Cataloipus fuscocoerulei pesSjostedt, Diabolo catantops axillaris. Thunberg, Hierogly phusdaganensis Krauss, the brown locust Locustana pardalina Walk, the red locust Nomada crissep temfasciata Serville, Kraussellaamabile Krauss, Pyrgomorpha cognate Krauss (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Some of these locust and grasshopper species may cause severe economic damage to crops while others may occur usually only in small numbers, rarely causing heavy damage and having no economic importance.(COPR 2012)

1.2 HOST PLANTS AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANT OF GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUST

Both grasshoppers and locusts cause direct losses to crops by voraciously devouring vegetation. They feed on several economically important crops among which rice, wheat, cotton, maize and millet are the most important. Some species are host specific to certain plants; others feed on many different species and even families of plants. Total plant loss may occur when attack coincides with vulnerable stages of the crop. Grasshoppers pose damage every year, but become very destructive during outbreak periods. In the Sahel and Sudan savannah zones of West Africa, the Senegalese grasshopper O. senegalensisisan important pest of Pennisetum (millet), the principal food crop of the region (Cheke et al; 2010). In outbreak years, hopper bands can destroy millet and sorghum seedlings and farmers often have to reseed several times. In 1989, 5.7% of the farmers in northwestern Mali lost 70 to 90% of their millet crop due to grasshoppers (Cheke, 2010; Kremer and Lock, 2012). In Niger, between 10 and 82% damages measured on millet seed heads have been reported to be caused by O. senegalensis (Cheke et al., 2010).

1.3 MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF GRASSHOPPERS

Chemical control strategies Control of grasshoppers and locusts has traditionally relied on synthetic insecticides and for emergency situations this is unlikely to change. Large-scale locust and grasshopper outbreaks generally demand immediate attention and significant short-term reduction of the pest populations. To prevent total crop losses following severe outbreaks, chemical controls with conventional pesticides have been the most appropriate strategy in Sahel, Northern United States and Canada, South-eastern Asia, Australia and elsewhere from the 1950s to the mid-1980s (Brader, 2014). The technique of control of locusts and grasshoppers involved the spraying of barriers of persistent oregano chlorine insecticides across areas infested by hopper bands. For many years, the product of choice was dieldrin, a persistent pesticide well suited for barrier treatment (Brader, 2014). However, concerns about its detrimental impact on the environment resulted in its prohibition in most countries. Since the withdrawal of dieldrin, locust and grasshopper control has become more difficult and less efficient. In the absence of this product, other less persistent pesticides such as fenitrothion, malathion and fipronil, have been used for acridids control in Africa and in many parts around the world targeting both nymphs andadults. They are sprayed or dusted directly onto hopper bands and swarms, or distributed close to them as baits. All of these techniques require much greater effort in locating and treating individual targets than the former barrier technique that had been apparently successful. Most modern pesticides such as fenitrothion that has a half-life of about 24 hours are much less persistent and have therefore to be applied more frequently in larger volumes. Hence, even though they are less toxic than dieldrin, their environmental impact may well be worst. The scale and cost of pesticide application added to the concerns over the environmental and human health implications have triggered a strong interest in international programs for the development of microbial control agents for use in integrated control of acridoid pests. Biological control as alternative to conventional pesticides Biological control of acridoid pests has been developed as an alternative to conventional chemical application. At least 200 species of insects, mites, and nematodes attack grasshoppers. Various species of flies and wasps parasitize grasshopper nymphs and eggs while other flies, beetles (including blister beetle larvae in the genus Epicauta), birds, and rodents are significant predators. Among diseases that occur naturally in locust and grasshopper populations, the most common are from fungal infections and microsporidian, principally Paranosema locustae Canning (Micro sporidia: Nosematidae) (Brader 2014)

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are

(i) To determine the food plantpreferred by Oedaleus species as host plants.

(ii) Tofind out the effect of neembiopesticide on grasshoppers

(iii)Determine the duration of development of larval instars

(iv)Treat food with neem extract and record the behavior of the grasshoppers

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