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ANTHROPOMETRIC COMPARISM OF CEPHALIC INDICES BETWEEN YORUBA AND BENIN ETHNIC GROUPS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Anthropometry (from Greek anthropos, “man” andmetron, “measure”) refers to the measurement of the human individual.Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptions of body size and shape,it is the study of the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue. Actual stature, weight, and body measurements (including skinfolds and circumferences) will be collected for purposes of assessing growth, body fat distribution, and for the provision of reference data. Anthropometry is the single most universally applicable, inexpensive, and non-invasive method available to assess the size, proportions, and composition of the human body. Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. obesity epidemic), and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.
Cephalic index is a useful anthropometric parameter utilized in the determination of racial variations. It is also used to determine sexual differences especially in individuals whose identities are unknown. It is one of the clinical anthropometric parameters recognized in the investigation of craniofacial skeletal deformities and brain development because of its validity and practicality.
Cephalic index is the most frequently investigated craniofacial parameter as it utilizes the length and breadth of the head which are useful indices in the study of secular trend, it is used to measure the size of the head,cephalic index gives an idea of how genetic characters are transmitted between parents, offspring, and siblings. It is inherited in a unitary fashion,isolated or syndromiccraniosynostosis, primary microcephaly, and hydrocephalus are pathological disorders which manifest with abnormal cephalic indices in addition to other features.Several studies have been carried out to classify head shapes based on cephalic index into four internationally acceptable categories that include DOLICHOCEPHALIC (<74.9), MESOCEPHALIC (75–79.9), BRACHYCEPHALIC (80.0–84.9), and HYPERBRACHYCEPHALIC (85.0–89.9). A study has shown that the people of Gurung community of Nepal of India are brachycephalic with cephalic index of 80.42.Bhils and Barelas are mesocephalic (76.98 & 79.80). The Iranian people are predominantly brachycephalic and hyperbrachycephalic. The research aimed at comparing the cephalic index between the two genders in a selected population and at determining a baseline value of cephalic index which could be vital in forensic, anthropological, and clinical studies. Cephalic index is an important parameter useful in establishing racial and sexual dimorphism, data obtained from such measurements have been very useful in differentiating people of different ethnic backgrounds, nutritional status, and gender. Several measurable anthropometric parameters or variables have been developed over the years for establishing possible differences amongst different groups.Cephalic index is one of such very useful measurable anthropometric variables used in physical anthropology to determine geographical gender, age, and racial and ethnic variations. Comparison of changes in cephalic index between parents, offspring, and siblings gives clues to genetic transmission of inherited characters or traits which play a role in forensic science.
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AN ASSESSMENT OF PLANTAR ARCH INDEX AND PREVALENCE OF FLAT FEET
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to assess the plantar arch index among residents in ovia northeast L.G.A and to determine the prevalence of pes planus. A total of 380 subjects comprising of 194 males and 186 females aged 16-35 years were used for the study. The dynamic footprints of the subjects were obtained using endorsing ink and plain duplicating paper. The plantar arch index was determined as the ratio of the mid arch width to the mid heel width from the foot prints. Descriptive statistics for each variable included mean and standard deviation(SD). Mean 2SD was regarded as normal but greater than that that was considered as pes planus. After results were analyzed, a total of 60 males and 53 females had pes planus. The overall prevalence of pes planus was 29.72% with a prevalence of 15.78% among males and 13.94% among females. Bilateral pes planuswas commoner among males 4(1.05%) than females 2(0.52%). The results showed that the prevalence of pes planus was higher(P<0.05) among males than females in our study. 0(0%)cases of Pes Cavus was reported in this research,74(19.47%) males were normal, they didn’t have Pes planus or Pes Cavus, 100(26.317%) were normal, they didn’t have Pes planus or Pes Cavus.
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EVALUATION OF GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF LUMBOSACRAL VERTEBRAE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The vertebral spine presents regional curves on sagittal plane designed to absorb impact, reduce its longitudinal stiffness and intensify muscular function (Gelb et al., 1995). Values of sagittal curve measurements on spine present great variability in normal individuals often with a wide range of variation. The lumbosacral region is the most important region in the vertebral column in terms of mobility and weight bearing. It is lordotic in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, and kyphotic in the thoracic and coccygeal vertebrae. However, pathological conditions can alter these curvatures. The correlation between lumbosacral geometry and the incidence of low back pain has been established (Azar et al., 2009; Evcik and Yucel 2003; Sarikaya et al., 2007). The shape of the lumbosacral spine has been reported to be of importance in the occurrence of the low back pain (Lord et al., 1997; Fernand and Fox 1985).
Low back pain (LBP) is a highly common problem and causes much morbidity and socio-economic loss in the community (Dincer et al., 2007) with a lifetime incidence of between 50% and 90%. Therefore evaluation of the lumbosacral geometry is one parameter that is of importance in evaluating the possible etiology of low back pain (Lord et al., 1985). The radiographic parameters evaluated during an assessment of the lumbosacral vertebrae are:
· Lumbosacral Angle (LSA),
· Lumber Lordosis Angle (LLA),
· Sacral Inclination Angle (SIA) and
· Lumbosacral Disc Angle (LSDA).
Some studies have reported significant associations between some of the radiographic parameters and certain demographic and anthropometric factors (Lord et al., 1997; Fernand and Fox 1985; Amonoo-Kuofi 1992). However, the literature is still ambivalent with respect to an association between these radiographic parameters and certain anthropometric and demographic factors.
1.2 AN OVERVIEW OF THE RELEVANT BONY ANATOMY OF THE LUMBAR SPINE AND SACRUM
1.2.1 Vertebral Column
The vertebral column also referred to as the human spine is a curved linkage of individual bones or vertebrae. It is a very complicated musculoskeletal structure containing various soft and hard tissues. The vertebral or spinal column is a composite anatomical structure made of a string of 33 bones each known as a vertebra. They are connected by a mass of cartilage called inter-vertebral disc. The vertebral column is also the attachment site of various spinal muscles and ligaments which provide the structural stability of the entire vertebral column. The spinal canal located in the posterior region of the vertebral column functions as a protective shell of the delicate spinal cord. The adult vertebral column consisting of 33 vertebral segments accounts for approximately 48% of the overall body length. Although the usual number of vertebrae is 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 4 coccygeal, this total is subject to frequent variability, and there have been reports of variation between 32 and 35 bones. The sacral region consists of 5 fused vertebrae while the coccygeal region is made of 4 fused vertebrae. A typical vertebra has a ventral body, a dorsal vertebral (neural) arch, extended by lever-like processes, and a vertebral foramen, which is occupied in life by the spinal cord, meninges and their vessels (Andrew Williams et al., 2004).In keeping with the geometrical features of the vertebrae, the vertebral column is divided into five sections (fig 1.1), namely;
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THE HEALTH IMPLICATION OF STEROID FATTENED LIVESTOCK IN LAGOS MARKET AND THE IMPLICATION OF THEIR LIPID PROFILE FOR HUMAN NUTRITION
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Hormones are chemicals produced by animals to co-ordinate their physiological activities. They acts as messengers, produced in and released from one kind of tissue to gradually stimulate or inhibit some process in a different tissue over a long period. The importance of individual hormones varies between sexes and age and a disruption of the endocrine equilibrium may result in multiple actions e.g the male hormone testosterone controls many processes from the development offoetus to libido in the adult. Alternatively, one function may be controlled by multiple hormones, e.g. the menstrual cycles involves estradiol, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Hormones are vital innormal development, maturation and physiological functioning of many vital organs and processes in the body (Annamaria, 2012). However, like any other chemicals of natural or synthetic origin, hormones may be toxic to living organisms under certain circumstances. The toxicity may be due to an excess of its normal (physiological) action. Hormones, like other chemicals, may also exert direct toxic actions not related to their endocrine (physiological) actions (Annamaria, 2012). Besides the endogenous corticosteroids (cortisol, cortisone) and those suspected to be endogenous (prednisone, prednisolone), there are synthetic exogenous corticosteroids (dexamethasone, betamethasone), developed because of their anti-inflammatory properties.
Estrogens, androgens, gestagens and corticosteroids are steroids which act as hormones. The parent compound from which all steroids are derived is cholesterol. The classification of steroid hormones can be done according to their biological activity and pharmacological effects which includes the sex steroids, a subset of hormones producing sex differences and reproduction such as estrogen, gestagens and androgens. The second group is the corticosteroids which are glucocorticosteroids, involves in metabolism and immune function and mineralocorticosteroids, involves in the regulation of the blood volume and electrolyte content. They can also be classified upon their endo or exogenous origin. Steroid hormones that are biosynthetically present in the body are the endogenous hormones and they are chemical messengers from one cell (or group of cells) to another e.g (estradiol). Exogenous steroids are also called xenobiotics are foreign compounds that are naturally or synthetically produced e.gmethyltestosterone (Noppeet al., 2008). Apart from the endogenous corticosteroids (cortisol, cortisone) and those suspected to be endogenous (prednisone, prednisolone), there are the synthetic exogenous corticosteroids ‘old’ structures. Well-known examples of these drugs with a steroids structures are tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), norbolethoneanddesoxymethyltestosterone (DMT) (Noppeet al., 2008).
Cholesterol is a waxy substance made by animal liverand also supplied in diet through animal products suchas meats, poultry, fish and dairy products. Cholesterol isneeded in the body to insulate nerves, make cellmembranes and produce certain hormones, and it is animportant lipid in some membranes. However, the bodymakes enough cholesterol, so any dietary cholesterol isn’tneeded. Cholesterol plays a major role in human heart health but can be both good and bad. High-densitylipoprotein (HDL) is good cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is bad cholesterol. Triglycerides are another fat in the bloodstream, the most common type of fat in the body. High levels oftriglycerides is also linked to heart disease and diabetes.A high triglyceride level combined with low HDL cholesterol or high LDL cholesterol seems to speed up atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty deposits in artery walls that increase the risk for heart attack and stroke (Hongbao, 2006).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Due to the important role of hormones in several body functions, they also have been exogenously applied to animals and humans for productivity and growth development. Focusing on the veterinary field, due to the obvious ability to improve weight gain and feed efficiency in meat producing animals, natural hormones and/or the synthetic surrogates have been used in agricultural practice for several decades by farmers and this imposes several risks on human health. Also, corticosteroids can be illegally used in animal fattening, this is because it has been described that they may have a synergetic effect when combined with anabolic steroids or agonists. (Courtheynet al., 2002; Noppeet al., 2007). Both exogenous hormones and synthetic compounds mimicking their effects may change the endogenous balance of human body, disturbing their natural functions. Children are extremely sensitive to exogenous steroid hormones because of their low endogenous levels, small variation in their blood levels might trigger serious pubertal development effects and even future adult life problems (Aksglaedeet al., 2006; Alveset al., 2007). An unexpected advance in timing of puberty in both African-American and white American girls (Herman-Giddenset al., 1997).
In adults, an association between the risk of breast cancer and persistently elevated blood levels of oestrogen and androgen has been found in many studies (Kaakset al., 2005; Yager& Davidson, 2006). Also, data published by Swan et al., in 2007 suggested that maternal beef consumption may alter males’ testicular development in utero and adversely affect his adult reproductive capacity. In the human diet, meat is seen as a major source of fat and especially of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), which havebeen implicated in diseases associated with modern life,mostly in developed countries. Coronary heart diseaseand arteriosclerosis are among the most importantcauses of human mortality, and are strongly associatedwith dietary intake of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids(Simopoulos, 2002, 2004). In addition, HDL is considered to be beneficial as higher levels have been correlated with reduced risk of negative cardiovascular event (American heart Association, 2007). Elevated LDL and triglycerides are considered detrimental as their increased concentration is well is well correlated with poor cardiovascular outcomes (American heart Association, 2007; Segrest, 2002).
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
As regards to hormonal content, all foodstuff of animal origin contains steroids hormones and metabolites, but their concentrations vary with the kind of food, gender, age and physiological stage of the animal. (Daxenbergeret al., 2001; Poelmanset al., 2005a, 2005b). In fact meat is clearly one of the most naturally contaminated foods. (Maumeet al., 2001, 2003; Poelmanset al., 2005a). Regarding potential toxicological substances used in animal husbandry and their derivatives the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) concluded that ‘safety can be assured’ because they are endogenous in both food-producing animals and people. However, to show the safety of an endogenous sex steroid, it should be demonstrated under the proposed conditions of use, the concentration of residue of the endogenous steroid in treated food-producing animals is such that the increase will not exceed this 1% permitted increase. In 1988, the Joint Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation (FAO/WHO) Expert on Food Additives (JECFA) and the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) that the residues found in meat from treated animals were safe for the consumers. The World Health Organization recommends that the daily fat intake be reduced to 30% of the total energy intake, and that saturated fats should be limited to 10% of this caloric intake. It is also advised that cholesterol intake should not exceed 300 mg per day. Dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and possibly the incidence of some cancers, asthma and diabetes among others. In fact, clinical trials have shown that it is unnecessary to completely substitute fish or poultry for lean red meat choices to achieve desirable blood lipid profiles (Davidson et al., 1999; Hunninghakeet al., 2000). The concentration of dexamethasone will be analyzed in order to know if the use its use is being abused in animal husbandry by local farmers and the residual concentration in meat matrix will be known at the end of this study. The lipid profile of the selected animals will also be determined.
1.4 AIM OF THE STUDY
To identify the health implication of steroid fattened livestockin Lagos market and the implication of their lipid profile for human nutrition.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To determine the presence of dexamethasone (steroid) in blood samples of chicken, mutton, pork, chevon and beef.
2. To determine the Lipid profile (cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL) of the blood samples of the above named meat samples.
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08068231953 or 08168759420
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HEALTH IMPLICATION OF STEROID FATTENED LIVESTOCKIN LAGOS MARKET AND THE IMPLICATION OF THEIR LIPID PROFILE FOR HUMAN NUTRITION.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Hormones are chemicals produced by animals to co-ordinate their physiological activities. They acts as messengers, produced in and released from one kind of tissue to gradually stimulate or inhibit some process in a different tissue over a long period. The importance of individual hormones varies between sexes and age and a disruption of the endocrine equilibrium may result in multiple actions e.g the male hormone testosterone controls many processes from the development offoetus to libido in the adult. Alternatively, one function may be controlled by multiple hormones, e.g. the menstrual cycles involves estradiol, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Hormones are vital innormal development, maturation and physiological functioning of many vital organs and processes in the body (Annamaria, 2012).
However, like any other chemicals of natural or synthetic origin, hormones may be toxic to living organisms under certain circumstances. The toxicity may be due to an excess of its normal (physiological) action. Hormones, like other chemicals, may also exert direct toxic actions not related to their endocrine (physiological) actions (Annamaria, 2012).
Besides the endogenous corticosteroids (cortisol, cortisone) and those suspected to be endogenous (prednisone, prednisolone), there are synthetic exogenous corticosteroids (dexamethasone, betamethasone), developed because of their anti-inflammatory properties.
Estrogens, androgens, gestagens and corticosteroids are steroids which act as hormones. The parent compound from which all steroids are derived is cholesterol. The classification of steroid hormones can be done according to their biological activity and pharmacological effects which includes the sex steroids, a subset of hormones producing sex differences and reproduction such as estrogen, gestagens and androgens. The second group is the corticosteroids which are glucocorticosteroids, involves in metabolism and immune function and mineralocorticosteroids, involves in the regulation of the blood volume and electrolyte content.
They can also be classified upon their endo or exogenous origin. Steroid hormones that are biosynthetically present in the body are the endogenous hormones and they are chemical messengers from one cell (or group of cells) to another e.g (estradiol). Exogenous steroids are also called xenobiotics are foreign compounds that are naturally or synthetically produced e.gmethyltestosterone (Noppeet al., 2008).
Apart from the endogenous corticosteroids (cortisol, cortisone) and those suspected to be endogenous (prednisone, prednisolone), there are the synthetic exogenous corticosteroids ‘old’ structures. Well-known examples of these drugs with a steroids structures are tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), norbolethoneanddesoxymethyltestosterone (DMT) (Noppeet al., 2008).
Cholesterol is a waxy substance made by animal liverand also supplied in diet through animal products suchas meats, poultry, fish and dairy products. Cholesterol isneeded in the body to insulate nerves, make cellmembranes and produce certain hormones, and it is animportant lipid in some membranes. However, the bodymakes enough cholesterol, so any dietary cholesterol
isn’tneeded. Cholesterol plays a major role in human heart health but can be both good and bad. High-densitylipoprotein (HDL) is good cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is bad cholesterol.
Triglycerides are another fat in the bloodstream, the most common type of fat in the body. High levels oftriglycerides is also linked to heart disease and diabetes.A high triglyceride level combined with low HDL cholesterol or high LDL cholesterol seems to speed up atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty deposits in artery walls that increase the risk for heart attack and stroke (Hongbao, 2006).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Due to the important role of hormones in several body functions, they also have been exogenously applied to animals and humans for productivity and growth development. Focusing on the veterinary field, due to the obvious ability to improve weight gain and feed efficiency in meat producing animals, natural hormones and/or the synthetic surrogates have been used in agricultural practice for several decades by farmers and this imposes several risks on human health. Also, corticosteroids can be illegally used in animal fattening, this is because it has been described that they may have a synergetic effect when combined with anabolic steroids or agonists. (Courtheynet al., 2002; Noppeet al., 2007).
Both exogenous hormones and synthetic compounds mimicking their effects may change the endogenous balance of human body, disturbing their natural functions. Children are extremely sensitive to exogenous steroid hormones because of their low endogenous levels, small variation in their blood levels might trigger serious pubertal development effects and even future adult life problems (Aksglaedeet al., 2006; Alveset al., 2007). An unexpected advance in timing of puberty in both African-American and white American girls (Herman-Giddenset al., 1997).
In adults, an association between the risk of breast cancer and persistently elevated blood levels of oestrogen and androgen has been found in many studies (Kaakset al., 2005; Yager& Davidson, 2006). Also, data published by Swan et al., in 2007 suggested that maternal beef consumption may alter males’ testicular development in utero and adversely affect his adult reproductive capacity.
In the human diet, meat is seen as a major source of fat and especially of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), which havebeen implicated in diseases associated with modern life,mostly in developed countries. Coronary heart diseaseand arteriosclerosis are among the most importantcauses of human mortality, and are strongly associatedwith dietary intake of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids(Simopoulos, 2002, 2004). In addition, HDL is considered to be beneficial as higher levels have been correlated with reduced risk of negative cardiovascular event (American heart Association, 2007). Elevated LDL and triglycerides are considered detrimental as their increased concentration is well is well correlated with poor cardiovascular outcomes (American heart Association, 2007; Segrest, 2002).
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
As regards to hormonal content, all foodstuff of animal origin contains steroids hormones and metabolites, but their concentrations vary with the kind of food, gender, age and physiological stage of the animal. (Daxenbergeret al., 2001; Poelmanset al., 2005a, 2005b). In fact meat is clearly one of the most naturally contaminated foods. (Maumeet al., 2001, 2003; Poelmanset al., 2005a). Regarding potential toxicological substances used in animal husbandry and their derivatives the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) concluded that ‘safety can be assured’ because they are endogenous in both food-producing animals and people.
However, to show the safety of an endogenous sex steroid, it should be demonstrated under the proposed conditions of use, the concentration of residue of the endogenous steroid in treated food-producing animals is such that the increase will not exceed this 1% permitted increase. In 1988, the Joint Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation (FAO/WHO) Expert on Food Additives (JECFA) and the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) that the residues found in meat from treated animals were safe for the consumers.
The World Health Organization recommends that the daily fat intake be reduced to 30% of the total energy intake, and that saturated fats should be limited to 10% of this caloric intake. It is also advised that cholesterol intake should not exceed 300 mg per day. Dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and possibly the incidence of some cancers, asthma and diabetes among others. In fact, clinical trials have shown that it is unnecessary to completely substitute fish or poultry for lean red meat choices to achieve desirable blood lipid profiles (Davidson et al., 1999; Hunninghakeet al., 2000).
The concentration of dexamethasone will be analyzed in order to know if the use its use is being abused in animal husbandry by local farmers and the residual concentration in meat matrix will be known at the end of this study. The lipid profile of the selected animals will also be determined.
1.4 AIM OF THE STUDY
To identify the health implication of steroid fattened livestockin Lagos market and the implication of their lipid profile for human nutrition.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To determine the presence of dexamethasone (steroid) in blood samples of chicken, mutton, pork, chevon and beef.
2. To determine the Lipid profile (cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL) of the blood samples of the above named meat samples.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
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THE EVALUATION OF GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF LUMBOSACRAL VERTEBRAE (A RADIOGRAPHIC STUDY)
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen accidentally discovered x-rays in 1895 while conducting some experiments in his laboratory (Yochum and Rowe 2005). The “X” in x-rays represented the unknown ray as Roentgen did not know what to name the invisible rays. One of the significant aspects of this discovery was the development of the clinical radiography which allows us to “see” the internal structures of the body especially bony tissue. Although the x-ray was considered an excellent diagnostic imaging tool, the harmful aspect of radiation could not be ignored (Yochum and Rowe 2005). Since its discovery, it has been of immense value in the evaluation of skeletal disorders (Yochum and Rowe 2005; Kendrik et al., 2001). Most patients requiring medical attention for low back pain have routine x-rays taken of the lumbosacral spine as part of the initial evaluation. The radiographs may be evaluated utilizing the ABCS approach (A = Alignment; B = Bone; C = Cartilage; S = Soft tissue). Routinely two views are taken anteroposterior (AP) and lateral (L) views. Igbinedion and Akhigbe (2011) recorded that transition vertebrae cause low back pain. Transition vertebrae involved the downward migration of L5 (sacralisation) or upward migration of S1 (lumbarisation) (Igbinedion and Akhigbe, 2011).Igbinedion and Akhigbe (2011); Osunwoke et al., (2009), however, recorded that 32.3% of their patients had transitional vertebrae, of which 5.9% had lumbarisation and 26.4% sacralisation. In that same study, 2.4% males and 3.6% females had lumbarisation and 15.7% males and 10.7% females had sacralisation. In the study recorded by Uduma et al., (2013), lumbarisation was seen in four cases (7.02%) with equal male to female ratio. The earliest age of discovery was 4th decade. This late presentation of an anatomical variant is probably due to its asymptomatic nature. Symptomatology, therefore, arose on receipt of secondary spondylosis. However, Igbinedion and Akhigbe (2011), did not observed any statistical correlation between transitional vertebrae with sex, age group, body mass index, osteophyte formation, vacuum phenomenon, disk degeneration, and spondylolisthesis. Measurement of the lumbar spine radiographic parameters may be useful in the investigation of low back pain (Amonoo-Kuofi 1992) and in the design and development of spinal implants and instrumentation (Zhou et al., 2000).
The radiographic parameters evaluated during an assessment of the lumbosacral vertebrae are:
Lumbosacral angle (LSA)
Lumbar lordosis angle (LLA)
Sacral Inclination angle (SIA)
Lumbosacral disc angle (LDA)
Lumbosacral Angle (LSA): Lumbosacral angle is also known as sacral base angle (SBA) or Ferguson’s angle (Yochum and Rowe 2005). There is very little research available on the precise causes of LSA alterations and the effects on spinal biomechanics. The available data often differ in opinion. Chung et al., (1981) in a study on 132 symptomatic Korean males and females reported that males have a slightly greater LSA than females. On the contrary, Fernand and Fox (1985) reported a significantly higher mean LSA in females; the males had a mean LSA of 43.3° while the females had a mean of 47.2°. However, Rosok and Peterson (1993) noted no difference in the mean LSA between males and females. LSA was noted to be greater in females who had a history of previous pregnancy than females who had no offspring (Bryner and Moussali 1992). Middleditch and Oliver (2005) reported that the LSA is greater in females during child-bearing years than in post-menopausal females and the difference was presumed to be due to hormones. Few studies have examined the effects of body type and size on LSA (Andrews et al., 2001; Brunaugh et al.,2002). There is paucity of data on the effects if obesity and excess body fat distribution on LSA. Andrews et al., (2001) reported no correlation between BMI and LSA. This study was however said to be unreliable due to its inability to differentiate between abnormal BMI and WHR. Ridola et al.,(1994) noted that in the obese individual, the weight of the trunk at the base of the sacrum is displaced anteriorly. This displacement will cause the pubis to rotate posteroinferiorly, while the sacrum tends to rise superiorly and assume a more horizontal orientation thus increasing the LSA. Brunaugh et al., (2002) noted a significant correlation between BMI and WHR, and LSA. A wide range of variation in this measurement has been noted. Yochum and Rowe (2005) reported a range of 26 – 57º with a mean of 41º ± 7º. They also noted that the value increases from the recumbent to upright position by 7 – 12º. Kim et al., (2006) noted a normal value of 39.8º ± 8º with a range of 11 – 58º. These findings show that the LSA varies widely among individuals. There is no consensus of opinion on the significance of either a decreased or an increased LSA. An increased angle has been implicated as a mechanical factor in low back pain by increasing shearing and compressive forces on the lumbosacral posterior joints (Bogduk 2005; Yochum and Rowe 2005)
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ASSESSMENT OF PLANTAR ARCH INDEX AND PREVALENCE OF FLAT FEET AMONG RESIDENTS IN OVIA NORTHEAST L.G.A, EDO STATE.
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to assess the plantar arch index among residents in ovia northeast L.G.A and to determine the prevalence of pesplanus. A total of 380 subjects comprising of 194 males and 186 females aged 16-35 years were used for the study. The dynamic footprints of the subjects were obtained using endorsing ink and plain duplicating paper. The plantar arch index was determined as the ratio of the mid arch width to the mid heel width from the foot prints. Descriptive statistics for each variable included mean and standard deviation(SD). Mean 2SD was regarded as normal but greater than that that was considered as pes planus. After results were analyzed, a total of 60 males and 53 females had pes planus. The overall prevalence of pes planus was 29.72% with a prevalence of 15.78% among males and 13.94% among females. Bilateral pes planuswas commoner among males 4(1.05%) than females 2(0.52%). The results showed that the prevalence of pes planus was higher(P<0.05) among males than females in our study. 0(0%)cases of Pes Cavus was reported in this research,74(19.47%) males were normal, they didn’t have Pes planus or Pes Cavus, 100(26.317%) were normal, they didn’t have Pes planus or Pes Cavus.
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THE ANATOMICAL RAGE OF VARIATION SEEN IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE EAR AMONG IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY OKADA STUDENTS BETWEEN AGE 16-35
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Roebuck et al noted that anthropometric data varies considerably for individuals within a family or a nation and between nations.
Anthropometry refers to the measurement of living human body dimensions for the purpose of understanding human body physical variation as it plays an important role in plastic surgery, prosthetics, and so on for data collection. Statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are useful for apparel sizing, forensics, and optimise products.
Many studies have defined human body parts and their proportion to each other morphometrically. In humans, the ear is the defining feature of the face and its structure shows signs of sex and age. The human ear is divided into external, middle and internal part. The pinna and external acoustic meatus forms the external ear. The lateral surface of the pinna is irregularly concave, faces slightly forward and displays numerous eminences and depressions. These structures do not merely act as trumpets; they are the first series of stimulus modifiers in the auditory apparatus.(Standrings, 2008). The importance of anthropometric data was stressed by Abeyshekera and Shahnavaz when they stated that a piece of equipment designed to fit 90% of the male United States population would fit about 90% of Germans, 80% Frenchmen, 65% of Italians, 45% of Japanese, 20% of Thais, and 10% percent of Vietnamese. (Abeyshekera, 1989).
Saha observed that there were differences in anthropometric data of people from different regions of India (Saha, 1985). Similarly in Nigeria different regions of people presents different anthropometric data. Jung and Jung surveyed the dimensions and characteristics of Korean ears and found that age gender and different ethnic populations were determinants of ear dimensions. (Jung et al, 2003). A study carried out in India observed that North-West Indians have smaller ear lobules when compared to Caucasians and Japanese population but similar to those found among the Onge tribe of the Andhra (India) and Newars of Nepalby Sharma et al.
Since anthropometric data should be established for the user population as anthropometric data for Igbinedion University students is scant, the present study attempts to provide anthropometric data for the ear. The study is intended to describe the anatomical height and width of the ear amongst Igbinedion University Students (aged from 16-35years). From these data, it is envisaged that anatomical and morphological differences and changes of the ear in relation to age and sex in our population would be established.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
There is no documented anthropometric data of the ear on an average of 16-35 years of age among Igbinedion university students. This project focuses on documenting the anthropometric data of the ear of Igbinedion University students of the above age and as well as discuss the relevance and uses of anthropometric data in identification and application to forensic science.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study is based on well-established hypothesis that the human external ear is a highly variable structure. Therefore the main objective is to investigate to what extent this variability exists. It is not possible to undoubtedly prove the theory that all ears are unique, therefore, the null hypothesis is that some human ears are the same. The hypothesis would be accepted, if two ears are found to be exactly alike.
1.3 SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The scope of this project is aimed at investigating the range of variation seen in the anthropometry of the ear among Igbinedion University Okada students between the ages of 16-35 years. The study focused on various components of the external ear and how they vary. A combination of various previous methods as well as some new initiatives was employed. As the variation technique used for the study is through measuring the length and width of the external ear structure.
The significance of the study was aimed to answer the following questions:
How much variation is displayed in ear size
Does sexual dimorphism exist in external ear structure?
What range of variation is seen between the two ears of a single individual?
How does age affect ear structure?
Are all ears different?
1.5 DEFINATION OF TERMS
a) ANTHROPOMETRY: Anthropometry can be defined as the scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body.
b) DIMORPHISM: Dimorphism isthe existence among animals of same species of two distinct form that differs in one or more characteristics, such as colourization, size, age, shape or sex; Sexual dimorphism on the other hand is a phenotypic differentiation between males and females of the same species
c) MORPHOMETRY: The process of measuring the external shape and dimension of landforms, living organisms or other objects.
d) MORPHOLOGY: The study of the forms of things, in particular; a particular form, shape or structure.
e) OVIA NORTH EAST: This is a local government in Okada town region in the Edo state area of Nigeria containing populations from different tribes.
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EFFECT OF ETHANOL EXTRACT OF ZINGIBER OFFICINALE (GINGER) AND MUCUNA URENS (HORSE EYE-BEAN) ON TESTOSTERONE IN MALE ALBINO RATS
ABSTRACTS
The effects of ethanol extract of Ginger and Horse eye bean on testosterone of male albino wistar rats were investigated. Fifty male albino rats weighing 120g – 200g were divided into 10 groups with 5 animals in each group. Group I served as the control while Groups 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 were the experimental groups. 600 seeds of Mucana urens and 200 rhizome of Zingiber officinale were used. The content was extracted using 2000mls and 1000mls of ethanol for Mucuna urens and Zingiber officinale. Filtered and concentrated in water bath at 45oc. 1000mg of the extracts were dissolved in 10mls distill water. The extracts were administered orally for twenty-one days. Group 1 was administered 5mls water, group 2 was administered, 500mg/kg Mucuna urens, group 3 was administered 1000mg/kg Mucuna urens, group 4 was administered 1500mg/kg Mucuna urens, group 5 was administered 86.6mg/kg Ginger, group 6 was administered 173.21mg/kg Ginger, group 7 was administered 259.81 mg/kg ginger, group 8 was administered 500mg/kg MU + 173.21 mg/kg 20 and group 10 was 1500mg/kg + 259.81mg/kg ZO. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (p<0.05). Ethanol seed extract of Mu decreased testosterone levels and ZO extract increases testosterone levels.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Ginger is a spice originated from the Rhizomes of the plant Zingiber officinale. It is valued around the world as an important cooking spice. Ginger is available fresh and dried, as ginger extract and ginger oil and in tinctures, capsules and lozenges. The plant is a rhizome that has been used in traditional medicine to aid nausea, diarrhea, arthritis, digestion and treat stomach upset for centuries. Ginger is also believed to help the flu-like symptoms, headaches and even heart disease (Bhandari et al., 1998) or cancer (Katiyar et al, 1996). The important active components of the ginger root are thought to be volatile oils and pungent phenol compounds such as gingerols, shogaols, zingerone and gingerous (Sekiwa et al, 2000; Zancar et al, 2002).
Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb tea. Mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. It is also medically used for its immunomodulatory, anti-tunorigenic, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic and antioxidant properties. In addition, it was found that Zingiber officinale is associated with a beneficial effect on male reproductive functions in rats, which confirmed by other studies on the increased sperm counts, motility, testosterone and decreased malonhydialdehyde levels. It was also observed that the administration of ginger can significantly increase testosterone level, in plasma and stimulate spermatogenesis.
Although the effectiveness of ginger as an antioxidant agent has been exploited in animals, little human research has been conducted on its activity on male reproductive functions.
Mucuna urens is a plant that belongs to the family fabaceae, commonly found in home gardens in the south eastern parts of Nigeria, West Africa, where the Efik’s, Ibibio’s and Igbo’s use the seeds as a major soup condiment for thickening. In Northern Nigeria, farmers incorporate the seed into the normal feed for farm animals due to its rich protein content (Umoren et al, 2007). It is called “Ibaba” by the Efik/Ibibio’s and “ukpor” by the Igbo’s and is usually sold in the local markets during its harvest season which is in the month of January (Eilitta and Carsky, 2003), though in recent times, it is cultivated near trees as support for growth to enable production of many seeds per plant (Sridhar and Bhat, 2007). In other localities where Mucuna urens is found, it is known as velvet bean, pica-pica, being nutritionally (Esonu et al., 2001). Despite being nutritionally promising, Mucuna has been reported to contain some endogenous toxic factors. Relatively high concentration of tannins, phytic acid, cyancgenic glucoside, oxalate and gossypol have been reported in mucuna (Laurena et al, 1994).
Toxic compounds including L-DOPA (3, 4 dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine), nicotine, physostigmine and serotinine have been also reported in mucuna. These factors negatively affect the nutritive value of the beans through direct and indirect reactions; they inhibit proteins and carbohydrate digestibility; induce pathological changes in the intestine and liver tissues, thus affecting metabolism; inhibit a number of enzymes and bind nutrients, thus making them unavailable (Bressani, 1993). It is however, believed that heat treatment reduce these anti-nutritional properties of the seeds (Umoren et al, 2007). There are reports that the seed affect the consistency of semen and motility of sperm cells (Udoh and Ekpenyong, 2001).
Mucuna urens is often cracked and removed from the seed coats soaked in water and then boiled (Osei-Bonsu et al.,1995; Elitta and Carsky, 2003), roasted or fermented to remove most of the toxic substances, which have been implicated in poisoning (Ose-Bonsu et al., 1995).
Horse eye bean are reported to be rich sources of potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, protein and amino acids (Olaboro, 1993) as well as containing 5-hydrotryptamine, mucunine, mucunadine proteins, carbohydrates, tannins and phytates (Udoh and Ekpenyong, 2001).
Udoh and Ekpenyong (2001) also reported the degeneration of sperm in testicular tubules, collapse of the villi in prostate gland and reduction of secretion in the prostate gland and seminal vesicles of male guinea pigs treated with seeds of horse eye-bean. Horse eye bean, ox-eye bean and devil bean are the common English name for Mucuna urens.
Infertility is the inability to conceive after having unprotected sex for the period of 12 months. About 20 to 30% of infertility cases are due to male infertility and 20 to 35 are due to female infertility. 25 to 40% are due to combined problems in both parts.
In about 10 to 20% of cases, no cause is found, male infertility is most commonly due to deficiencies in the semen, and semen quality is used as a surrogate measure of male fecundity. (Cooper et al, 2010). Factors relating to male infertility include Immune infertility, testicular factors, variocele, age, genetic defects on the Y choromosome and abnormal set of chromosomes.
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THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF FRESH STEM JUICE AND AQUEOUS STEM JUICE EXTRACT OF COSTUS AFER (BUSH CANE) ON THE HISTOMORPHOLOGY OF THE STOMACH OF PARACETAMOL TREATED ALBINO WISTAR RATS
ABSTRACT
This study was designed to compare the effect of fresh stem juice and aqueous stem juice extract of Costus afer on the stomach of paracetamol treated rats. Ld50 of the fresh stem juice and aqueous stem juice extract was determined by the modified Lorke’s method using twenty one (21) male mice and was determined to be 223.61 mg/kg and 353.55 mg/kg respectively. Twenty eight (28) adult male Wistar rats were used for the experiment. The animals were weighed before and after the experiment. They were randomly divided into seven groups of four animals in each group as follows. Group A: the control group was given feed and water ad libitum. Groups B – G served as the experimental groups. Group B was administered with 28.57 mg/kg of paracetamol. Group C was administered with 44.72 mg/kg of fresh stem juice extract of Costus afer. Group D was administered with 70.71 mg/kg of aqueous stem juice extract of Costus afer. Group E was administered with 28.57 mg/kg of paracetamol and 44.72 mg/kg of fresh stem juice of Costus afer .Group F was administered with 28.57 mg/kg of paracetamol and 70.71 mg/kg of aqueous stem juice extract of Costus afer. Group G was administered with 28.57 mg/kg of paracetamol and 100 mg/kg of silymarin. All administrations were carried out within 21 days. Administration was done orally using an orogastric tube. After the 21 days the animals were sacrificed by chloroform inhalation anesthesia and their stomach harvested, fixed in 10 % buffered formalin, processed and stained with hematoxylin and eosin staining technique. They were observed under a light microscope and the following observations were made. Group A showed normal histoarchitecture of the gastric epithelium. Group B showed severe atrophy of the gastric epithelium tissues. Degenerations in the stomach tissues where also mildly observed in groups C, D, E, F and G as compared to the paracetamol treated group. In conclusion, from this research it has been observed that oral administration of C. afer is toxic at the dosage above 223.61 mg/kg at fresh juice and 353.51 mg/kg at aqueous extract for of 21days, and it offered little protective effect on the stomach treated with paracetamol.
Keywords: Costus afer, Stomach, Paracetamol.
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