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EXTRACTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PEROXIDES FROM OCIMUM GRATISSIMUM
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Medicinal plants remain a major source of bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic and industrial relevance. Among these plants, Ocimum gratissimum, commonly known as scent leaf, clove basil, or African basil, has gained increasing scientific attention due to its rich phytochemical profile and broad-spectrum pharmacological activities (Eze et al., 2023). The plant is widely cultivated across tropical regions, particularly in West Africa, where it serves culinary, cultural, and medicinal functions. Its essential oils and extracts contain phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, and peroxides that contribute to antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties (Okoh et al., 2022; Salako & Ibrahim, 2024).
Peroxides are oxygen-rich organic compounds known for their strong oxidative properties and role in biological defense mechanisms. In plant systems, peroxides act as secondary metabolites produced in response to stress conditions, contributing to antimicrobial, insecticidal, and antioxidant activities (Ajayi et al., 2023). Extracting and characterizing peroxides from natural sources such as O. gratissimum provides critical insights into their therapeutic potentials and potential industrial applications, including pharmaceuticals, food preservation, and cosmetic formulations.
Research advancements have highlighted the value of plant-derived peroxides in combating oxidative stress, inhibiting pathogen growth, and supporting wound healing (Wang & Chen, 2023). However, systematic extraction, isolation, and characterization of peroxide compounds from O. gratissimum remain limited, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Given the increasing demand for natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents, understanding the chemical structure, functional properties, and stability of peroxides from O. gratissimum is essential.
This study therefore focuses on the extraction and characterization of peroxides from Ocimum gratissimum, using modern analytical approaches to determine their physicochemical properties, structural characteristics, and potential applications.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite the well-documented medicinal properties of O. gratissimum, little scientific work has specifically focused on its peroxide content. Most existing studies explore the plant’s essential oil composition and general phytochemical constituents, with limited emphasis on isolating and characterizing peroxides as distinct bioactive molecules (Eze et al., 2023). This lack of targeted investigation hinders a comprehensive understanding of the plant’s oxidative compounds and their potential industrial or therapeutic uses.
Additionally, conventional extraction methods often degrade peroxide compounds due to their high reactivity and thermal instability, making standardized procedures necessary to ensure purity and structural integrity (Ajayi et al., 2023). Similarly, limited availability of local research infrastructure in developing regions constrains advanced characterization techniques such as FTIR, GC-MS, NMR, and UV–Vis spectroscopy, which are vital for identifying peroxide structures.
Given these gaps, there is a need for a robust scientific investigation focusing specifically on the extraction, purification, and characterization of peroxides from Ocimum gratissimum. Such data will expand phytochemical knowledge and support potential applications in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food science, and herbal drug production.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to extract and characterize peroxides from Ocimum gratissimum leaves.
Specific objectives include:
To extract peroxides from O. gratissimum using standard phytochemical extraction techniques.
To purify and isolate peroxide fractions through chromatographic methods.
To characterize the extracted peroxides using spectroscopic and physicochemical analysis.
To evaluate the potential bioactive properties of the extracted peroxides.
To compare extracted peroxide characteristics with documented standards in literature.
1.4 Research Questions
What extraction methods are suitable for obtaining peroxides from Ocimum gratissimum?
What are the physicochemical properties of the extracted peroxide compounds?
How do the structural characteristics of the extracted peroxides compare with known peroxide standards?
What potential bioactivity do the peroxides exhibit after extraction and characterization?
What challenges could affect the extraction and stability of peroxide compounds from O. gratissimum?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses guide the study:
H01: There is no significant yield of peroxide compounds from Ocimum gratissimum using standard extraction methods.
H02: Extracted peroxide fractions do not possess significant bioactive properties.
H03: There is no significant structural difference between extracted peroxides and standard peroxides reported in literature.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study carries several academic, industrial, and pharmaceutical significance:
Scientific significance: It expands phytochemical knowledge on O. gratissimum, particularly concerning peroxide compounds, which are underexplored in current literature.
Pharmaceutical relevance: Plant-derived peroxides may serve as natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, supporting drug development and herbal formulations (Wang & Chen, 2023).
Industrial relevance: Peroxides have applications in food preservation, cosmetics, and organic synthesis; thus, characterization supports potential commercialization.
Socioeconomic impact: Enhancing local research on medicinal plants supports indigenous knowledge systems and strengthens the nutraceutical value chain in Nigeria and similar regions.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on Ocimum gratissimum leaves obtained within Nigeria. It covers extraction, purification, and characterization of peroxide compounds using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. The study is limited to laboratory-based analysis and does not extend into clinical testing or large-scale production.
1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms
Peroxides: Organic compounds containing an O–O (peroxy) bond with high oxidative properties.
Extraction: The process of isolating bioactive components from plant materials using solvents or mechanical methods.
Characterization: Identification and evaluation of chemical structures and properties using analytical instruments (e.g., GC-MS, FTIR).
Phytochemicals: Naturally occurring plant compounds with biological activity.
Ocimum gratissimum: A tropical medicinal plant known for its essential oils, antimicrobial properties, and aromatic leaves.
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ASSESSMENT OF TRACE ELEMENTS AND BACKGROUND IONIZING RADIATION IN SELECTED COMPANIES IN TRANS AMADI INDUSTRIAL LAYOUT IN PORTHARCOURT RIVERS STATE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Industrialization has become one of the major drivers of economic growth and technological advancement in Nigeria. However, industrial activities often come with environmental consequences, especially in terms of the release of hazardous substances into the environment. One area of concern is the presence of trace elements and the emission of ionizing radiation in industrial settings. Trace elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and chromium (Cr) may be released into the environment through industrial effluents, combustion processes, and manufacturing activities (Akinola et al., 2019). These elements, in excessive concentrations, can pose significant health risks, including toxicity, carcinogenicity, and bioaccumulation in the food chain (WHO, 2017).
Ionizing radiation, on the other hand, occurs both naturally and as a result of human activities. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) are found in rocks, soils, and water and may become concentrated during industrial processes such as petroleum refining, steel production, and chemical manufacturing (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation [UNSCEAR], 2020). Prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation can cause cellular damage, increase cancer risk, and affect genetic material (International Atomic Energy Agency [IAEA], 2014).
Port Harcourt, the capital of Rivers State, is one of Nigeria’s major industrial hubs. The Trans Amadi Industrial Layout hosts a variety of companies including oil and gas service firms, food and beverage manufacturers, chemical processing plants, and metal fabrication industries. These industries have the potential to release pollutants into the surrounding environment, thereby impacting air, water, soil quality, and background radiation levels (Eneke et al., 2021).
Monitoring the concentration of trace elements and the levels of background ionizing radiation is critical for assessing occupational and environmental safety. Such assessments not only help in determining compliance with national and international safety standards but also in developing appropriate mitigation strategies to protect workers and surrounding communities (Omeje et al., 2020).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Industrial operations in the Trans Amadi Industrial Layout have expanded significantly over the past two decades, raising concerns about environmental pollution and radiation exposure. Studies in other industrial zones have shown elevated levels of heavy metals and radiation beyond permissible limits, often linked to industrial emissions and poor waste management (Okoye & Nwankwo, 2019). However, there is limited site-specific data for Trans Amadi, especially on the combined assessment of trace elements and background ionizing radiation.
The lack of adequate environmental monitoring could result in prolonged human exposure to harmful substances and radiation, potentially causing health issues such as respiratory disorders, cancers, neurological problems, and organ damage (WHO, 2021). Without systematic evaluation, policy makers and industry regulators may be unable to implement effective control measures.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to assess the concentration of trace elements and background ionizing radiation in selected companies in the Trans Amadi Industrial Layout, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
The specific objectives are to:
Determine the concentration of selected trace elements in environmental samples from the study area.
Measure background ionizing radiation levels in and around selected companies.
Compare measured values with national and international safety standards.
Identify potential sources of contamination and radiation exposure in the study area.
Make recommendations for environmental safety management based on the findings.
1.4 Research Questions
The study will address the following research questions:
What are the concentrations of selected trace elements in the environmental samples from the study area?
What are the background ionizing radiation levels in the selected industrial sites?
How do the measured values compare with permissible limits?
What are the possible sources of trace element contamination and radiation exposure in the study area?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study will provide baseline data on trace elements and background ionizing radiation in the Trans Amadi Industrial Layout. This information will be beneficial to:
Regulatory agencies such as the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NNRA) and the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) in formulating effective environmental and occupational safety policies.
Industrial managers for ensuring compliance with safety standards and improving waste management practices.
Researchers as reference material for further environmental health studies in similar industrial settings.
The local community by raising awareness on potential environmental hazards.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study will focus on selected companies within the Trans Amadi Industrial Layout, representing different industrial categories. The investigation will include sampling of soil, air, and water where applicable, to determine trace element concentrations, as well as measuring background ionizing radiation using portable radiation survey meters. The study will not cover non-industrial areas of Port Harcourt or other types of radiation such as non-ionizing electromagnetic fields.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
Possible limitations may include:
Restricted access to certain company premises due to security or confidentiality concerns.
Variability in environmental conditions such as weather, which may influence readings.
Limited funding for extensive laboratory analyses of all possible trace elements.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
Trace Elements: Naturally occurring elements present in low concentrations in the environment, some of which may be toxic at elevated levels.
Background Ionizing Radiation: Radiation present in the environment from natural or anthropogenic sources, excluding localized industrial sources.
NORMs: Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials, which can become concentrated during certain industrial processes.
Industrial Pollution: The release of pollutants such as heavy metals, chemicals, and particulates from industrial activities into the environment.
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]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
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SURVEY OF RADIATION PROTECTION AWARENESS AMONG NON RADIATION WORKERS
ABSTRACT
Radiation protection entails the harmful effect of ionizing radiation, the interaction of any amount of ionizing radiation of any type, such as X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles with a biological system results in the absorption of the energy of the radiation by the system. This in turn may result in effects that become manifest in the exposed individuals (somatic effects) or appear in the descendant of exposed individuals (Genetic or Hereditary effects). The physics of the absorption process is over in 10-16 seconds, the chemistry takes longer, since the life time of the free radical is about 10-6 seconds, the biology takes days to months for cell killing, years for carcinogenesis, and generations for heredity damage. Available information on human susceptibility to effects of ionizing radiations has it that the lethal dose for 50% of the exposed population to die within thirty days of exposure is about three gray, for whole body exposure. Some organs and tissues are more sensitive to radiation and some are less. More sensitive tissues are blood forming organs, reproductive organs are those that constitute the nervous system. Death of a person may result from the overall exposure of the body for the destruction of vital organs. Acute exposure and chronic exposure at equal total doses may or may not produce the same effects.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Radiation is all around us, it is naturally present in our environment and has been since the birth of this planet. Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There two classes of radiation, ionizing and non ionizing radiation. Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes. As a matter of convention, ionizing radiation is classified as photons(X rays and gamma rays) or particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles). When ionizing radiation passes through matter, it may interact with whole atom electrons, nuclei or nucleons.
This interaction process in general is often described as collision. In this case of practical interest, the interaction results in the full transfer of energy of the incident radiation to electrons or nuclei of the constituent atoms or to charged particle products of nuclear reactions. The major sources of ionizing radiation that were available until 1930s were naturally occurring radioactive substance and low energy X-ray. But today, ionizing radiation can be produced from particle accelerations (Shalak and Chien, 1986) and is present in the environment, it is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, so instrument such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence.
According to World Health Organization, there are about 250 million cases of work-related injuries per year worldwide.1 One of the jobs that contribute to these occupational injuries is non-industrial welding, especially in developing countries including Nigeria. Welders cut and join metal parts using flame, electric arc or other sources of heat. There are three main classes of welding, namely, arc, oxyacetylenefuel
and robotic welding. Some of the hazards of this occupation include ultraviolet (UV) and infrared radiation (IR) exposure, fumes and particulate generation, thermal burns, occupational heat stress, exposure to electromagnetic fields, and electrocution.2 Similarly, the excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to UV radiation may lead to `arc eye’ or `flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage.2,3 Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes
containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and influenza-like condition called metal fume fever.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. While adherence to these precautions is nearly universal in the developed world, little is known about the situation in developing world including Nigeria.
In metropolitan Kaduna, the former administrative capital of northern Nigeria, welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops. This group has no organized occupational health service and their adherence to safety measures is unknown. We, therefore assessed the level of awareness of these hazards among welders in Kaduna metropolis and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Welders are often exposed to potential workplace hazards that can be injurious to their health especially when exposure is on a regular and cumulative basis. The excessive high temperature generated by the hot oxyacetylene flame or the electric current may lead to burns and electric shocks2.
Injuries such as lacerations and cuts by sharp or pointed metal panes, from high velocity particles and occasional explosions of the oxyacetylene gas tanks may also occur2. The excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to ultra violet radiation may lead to ‘arc eye’ or ‘flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage. Hearing impairment may result from exposure to high noise level produced by the welding machine. Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and to the influenza-like condition known as metal fume feve. There have been reports of carcinogenic and mutagenic effects due to chronic exposure to welding fumes in animals
that may be extrapolated to man.8-10. Other organs, which may be affected by welding fumes, include the kidneys and the reproductive organs leading to reduction in sperm count and fecundity.
Welding offers employment to various individuals in Benin City, Nigeria. The welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops with about welders per workshop. They have no form of organised occupational health service.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. It is therefore pertinent to assess the level of awareness of these hazards among welders and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view
to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To find out how much, the non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard.
2. To know if they actually practice radiation protection.
3. To identify the basic principle of radiation protection.
4. To assess the knowledge and awareness of radiation among welders in Nigeria.
5. To examine the extent of eye protection practices and symptoms among welders in the Nigeria.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
1. How much does non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard?
2. Does non radiation workers actually practice radiation protection?
3. What are the basic principle of radiation protection?
4. Do welder in Nigeria have full knowledge and awareness of radiation practice?
5. To what extent does non radiation workers practice eye protection practices?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOYTHESES
H0: Non radiation workers have no knewledge about radiation hazard.
H1: Non radiation workers have full knewledge about radiation hazard.
1.6 SIGNFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will help to create awareness about Radiation protection to general public.
ii). Also help to prompt the personnel about the effects of ionizing radiation.
Also help reinforce existing knowledge to the non radiation workers.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This scope of this research work is a study of radiation protection awareness in non non radiation workers.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Despite the limited scope of this study certain constraints were encountered during the research of this project. Some of the constraints experienced by the researcher were given below:
i. time: This was a major constraint on the researcher during the period of the work. Considering the limited time given for this study, there was not much time to give this research the needed attention.
ii. Finance: Owing to the financial difficulty prevalent in the country and it’s resultant prices of commodities, transportation fares, research materials etc. The researcher did not find it easy meeting all his financial obligations.
iii. Information Constraints: Nigerian researchers have never had it easy when it comes to obtaining necessary information relevant to their area of study from private business organization and even government agencies. People find it difficult to reveal their internal operations. The primary information was collected through face-to-face interview getting the published materials on this topic meant going from one library to other which was not easy. Although these problems placed limitations on the study, but it did not prevent the researcher from carrying out a detailed and comprehensive research work on the subject matter.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Radiation: Radiation is a component of man’s physical environment, and is broadly classified into ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
Ionizing Radiation: Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes.
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DEGRADATION OF METALLIC SURFACE DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION ON BOARD
ABSTRACT
This work deals with atmospheric corrosion to assess the degrading effects of air pollutants on ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys, which are mostly used as engineering materials. An exposure study was conducted in the Tuticorin port area located on the east coast of South India, in the Gulf of Mannar with Sri Lanka to the southeast. Common engineering materials, namely mild steel, galvanized iron, Zn, Al, Cu and Cu–Zn alloys (Cu–27Zn, Cu–30Zn and Cu–37Zn), were used in the investigation. The site was chosen where the metals are exposed to marine and industrial atmospheres. Seasonal 1 to 12 month corrosion losses of these metals and alloys were determined by a weight loss method. The weight losses showed strong corrosion of mild steel, galvanized iron, Cu and Zn and minor effect on Al and Cu–Zn alloys. Linear regression analysis was conducted to study the mechanism of corrosion. The composition of corrosion products formed on the metal surfaces was identified by x-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The word corrosion is derived from the latin corrosus which means eaten away or consumed by degrees; an unpleasant word for an unpleasant process[1]. Corrosion is defined as the destruction of materials caused by chemical or electrochemical action of the surrounding environment. This phenomenon is experienced in day to day living. The most common examples of corrosion include rusting, discoloration and tarnishing[2]. Corrosion is an ever occurring material disease. It can only be reduced it cannot be prevented because thermodynamically it is a spontaneous phenomena.
In fact, economy of any country would be drastically changed if there were no corrosion. For example, automobiles, ships, underground pipelines and house-hold appliances would not require coatings. The stainless steel industry would disappear and copper would be used for electrical applications. Although corrosion is inevitable, its cost could be reduced.
Corrosion can be fast or slow. Sensitized 18-8 stainless steel is badly attacked in hours by polythionic acid. Railroad tracks usually show slight rusting not sufficient to affect their performance over many years. The famous iron Delhi Pillar in India was made almost 2000 years ago and is almost as good as new. Its height is 32 feet and dia 2 feet. It should be noted however, that it has been exposed mostly to arid conditions [3].
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Atmospheric corrosion is probably the most common form of corrosion and is defined as the corrosion or degradation of material exposed to the air and its pollutants.
Therefore, it is important to know the specific corrosion rate in a given application environment in order to affectively use metals in outdoor structures. A common method for estimating the life of metals has been the use of various types of metals and alloys for the different types of atmospheres. Recognition of marked differences in corrosivity has made it convenient to divide atmospheres into types. The major types are rural, urban, industrial, marine, or a combination of these.
Many investigators have examined the corrosion rates of various metals exposed to different atmospheres (Upham, 1967; Knotkova et al., 1995; Kucera and Fitz, 1995; Mikhailov et al., 1995). These exposure studies were conducted to evaluate the relative corrosion resistance of various metals to different atmospheric environmental conditions. A metal resisting one atmosphere may lack effective resistance elsewhere, and hence, relative performance of metals changes with location. For example, galvanized iron performs well in rural atmospheres but it is relatively less resistant to industrial atmospheres (Uhlig and Revie, 1985).
The term corrosion products refer to the substances produced during a corrosion reaction. These can be soluble or insoluble compounds. The presence of corrosion products is the way in which corrosion is detected (e.g. rust). In general, the properties of the corrosion product are often the determining factors in the atmospheric corrosion behaviour of metals.
Models for predicting the corrosion damage of metals in the atmosphere are useful for answering questions regarding the durability of metallic structures, determining the economic costs of damages associated with the degradation of materials, and acquiring knowledge about the effect of environmental variables on corrosion kinetics (Feliu and Morcillo, 1993; Feliu et al., 1993). These models have been shown to be effective in these areas:
• Determination of the influence of pollutants in corrosion or degradation rate by obtaining regression equations between the different variables.
• Predictions about corrosion aggressivity of the atmosphere can be made based on the characteristics of the environment and the materials.
Both deterministic and statistical models have been developed for better understanding the environment. Deterministic models are based on fundamental mathematical descriptions of atmospheric processes, in which effects (air pollution) are generated by causes (emissions). Examples of the deterministic types are Euler and Gaussian models (Zannetti, 1983, 1994). On the other hand, Statistical models are based on semi-emprical statistical relations among available data and measurements. They do not necessarily reveal any relation between cause and effect.
They attempt to determine the underlying relationship between sets of input data (predictors) and targets (predictands). Examples of statistical models are regression analysis (Abdul-Wahab et al., 1996), time series analysis (Hsu, 1992) and artificial neural networks (Abdul-Wahab, 2001; Abdul-Wahab and Al-Alawi, 2001; Elkamel et al., 2001).
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this work is to assess the degrading effects of atmospheric corrosion on various metals that are mostly used in the engineering systems.. The common materials like aluminum, brass, copper, epoxy, galvanized, mild steel and stainless steel. This paper is to use regression analysis to predict corrosion rates of various metals at specific locations and the atmospheric corrosion of common metals was studied.
1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This work is dealing essentially with atmospheric corrosion to assess the degrading effects of air pollutions on various metals that are mostly used in the engineering systems. The common materials like aluminum, brass, copper, epoxy, galvanized, mild steel and stainless steel were used for investigation. The sites of exposure were chosen at five locations where the metals are likely to be used. Additive models using median polish were used to investigate the patterns of corrosion by metal type and location. Regression analysis was also used to develop a number of predictor models for corrosion, based on metal type, location, number of months of exposure, and number of degrading pollutants in the air.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to any of the numbers below
08068231953, 08137701720, 08154275408 (1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
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We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
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Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
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OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
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08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
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RADIATION PROTECTION AWARENESS IN NON RADIATION WORKERS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Radiation is all around us, it is naturally present in our environment and has been since the birth of this planet. Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There two classes of radiation, ionizing and non ionizing radiation. Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes. As a matter of convention, ionizing radiation is classified as photons(X rays and gamma rays) or particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles). When ionizing radiation passes through matter, it may interact with whole atom electrons, nuclei or nucleons.
This interaction process in general is often described as collision. In this case of practical interest, the interaction results in the full transfer of energy of the incident radiation to electrons or nuclei of the constituent atoms or to charged particle products of nuclear reactions. The major sources of ionizing radiation that were available until 1930s were naturally occurring radioactive substance and low energy X-ray. But today, ionizing radiation can be produced from particle accelerations (Shalak and Chien, 1986) and is present in the environment, it is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, so instrument such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence.
According to World Health Organization, there are about 250 million cases of work-related injuries per year worldwide.1 One of the jobs that contribute to these occupational injuries is non-industrial welding, especially in developing countries including Nigeria. Welders cut and join metal parts using flame, electric arc or other sources of heat. There are three main classes of welding, namely, arc, oxyacetylenefuel
and robotic welding. Some of the hazards of this occupation include ultraviolet (UV) and infrared radiation (IR) exposure, fumes and particulate generation, thermal burns, occupational heat stress, exposure to electromagnetic fields, and electrocution.2 Similarly, the excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to UV radiation may lead to `arc eye’ or `flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage.2,3 Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes
containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and influenza-like condition called metal fume fever.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. While adherence to these precautions is nearly universal in the developed world, little is known about the situation in developing world including Nigeria.
In metropolitan Kaduna, the former administrative capital of northern Nigeria, welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops. This group has no organized occupational health service and their adherence to safety measures is unknown. We, therefore assessed the level of awareness of these hazards among welders in Kaduna metropolis and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Welders are often exposed to potential workplace hazards that can be injurious to their health especially when exposure is on a regular and cumulative basis. The excessive high temperature generated by the hot oxyacetylene flame or the electric current may lead to burns and electric shocks2.
Injuries such as lacerations and cuts by sharp or pointed metal panes, from high velocity particles and occasional explosions of the oxyacetylene gas tanks may also occur2. The excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to ultra violet radiation may lead to ‘arc eye’ or ‘flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage. Hearing impairment may result from exposure to high noise level produced by the welding machine. Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and to the influenza-like condition known as metal fume feve. There have been reports of carcinogenic and mutagenic effects due to chronic exposure to welding fumes in animals
that may be extrapolated to man.8-10. Other organs, which may be affected by welding fumes, include the kidneys and the reproductive organs leading to reduction in sperm count and fecundity.
Welding offers employment to various individuals in Benin City, Nigeria. The welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops with about welders per workshop. They have no form of organised occupational health service.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. It is therefore pertinent to assess the level of awareness of these hazards among welders and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view
to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To find out how much, the non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard.
2. To know if they actually practice radiation protection.
3. To identify the basic principle of radiation protection.
4. To assess the knowledge and awareness of radiation among welders in Nigeria.
5. To examine the extent of eye protection practices and symptoms among welders in the Nigeria.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
1. How much does non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard?
2. Does non radiation workers actually practice radiation protection?
3. What are the basic principle of radiation protection?
4. Do welder in Nigeria have full knowledge and awareness of radiation practice?
5. To what extent does non radiation workers practice eye protection practices?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOYTHESES
H0: Non radiation workers have no knewledge about radiation hazard.
H1: Non radiation workers have full knewledge about radiation hazard.
1.6 SIGNFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will help to create awareness about Radiation protection to general public.
ii). Also help to prompt the personnel about the effects of ionizing radiation.
Also help reinforce existing knowledge to the non radiation workers.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This scope of this research work is a study of radiation protection awareness in non non radiation workers.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Despite the limited scope of this study certain constraints were encountered during the research of this project. Some of the constraints experienced by the researcher were given below:
i. time: This was a major constraint on the researcher during the period of the work. Considering the limited time given for this study, there was not much time to give this research the needed attention.
ii. Finance: Owing to the financial difficulty prevalent in the country and it’s resultant prices of commodities, transportation fares, research materials etc. The researcher did not find it easy meeting all his financial obligations.
iii. Information Constraints: Nigerian researchers have never had it easy when it comes to obtaining necessary information relevant to their area of study from private business organization and even government agencies. People find it difficult to reveal their internal operations. The primary information was collected through face-to-face interview getting the published materials on this topic meant going from one library to other which was not easy. Although these problems placed limitations on the study, but it did not prevent the researcher from carrying out a detailed and comprehensive research work on the subject matter.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Radiation: Radiation is a component of man’s physical environment, and is broadly classified into ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
Ionizing Radiation: Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to any of the numbers below
08068231953, 08137701720, 08154275408 (1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
OR you drop them on our WhatsApp, 08137701720
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
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PRODUCTION OF MOSQUITOES REPELLANTS INSECTICIDES
USING ORANGE PEELS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INSECTICIDES
Insecticide is a substance or a mixture of substances used for killing insects[1]. It is well known fact that many protozoal bacteria diseases are transmitted from man to man by insects. One may combat these diseases not only by means of prohylactic drugs but also by the destruction of the insects carriers.
Insecticide is a chemical compound that is lethally toxic to insects either by ingestion or by body contact. It is applied to vegetation, crops and insect breeding areas either as liquid spray or as dry powder[2].
They are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in 20th century.
Nearly, all insecticides have the potential to significantly after ecosystem, many are toxic to human and others are concentrated in food chain. It is necessary to balance agricultural needs with environmental and health issues when using insecticides. It is crucially important that all the rural areas in Nigeria are being educated on the need to eradicate insects especially mosquitoes that might breed around the environment and transmit malaria to people living within the enclave.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in the home being with restricting the availability of insects of three vital commodities; shelter, water and food. If insects become a problem despite such measures, IPM seeks to control them using the safest possible methods targeting the approach to the particular pest[1].
Years now, efforts are geared towards controlling malaria infestation both in urban and rural areas. A lot of measures are being taken to reduce the number of death as a result of malaria.
We hear now and then that numbers being quoted by the analyst that died of malaria attack. Thus, free mosquitoes treated nets are always distributed to families and individuals all in a bid to reduce malaria attack from mosquito bite.
In the light of this, it is necessary to study God-given substances in this case, plant that has embedded substances that will help man combat mosquitoes or at least reduce infestation to the barest minimum.
- OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY/WORK
The purpose of this work is to produce mosquito repellants using orange peels (cestrum) wastes perse, which will save the cost of production and purchase, thereby increasing its availability especially in the rural areas. If the work is successful, production of mosquitoes repellants using orange peels will provide source of employment to our teaming youths and also make mosquito repellant within the reach of everybody, thereby reducing the number of death due to malaria caused by mosquito bite.
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Orange peels (cestrum) will be prepared and used for the production of mosquito coil, which ignited, will repel mosquitoes within the limit of the smoke. The produced coil will be tested for the effectiveness performance. Cost analysis should also be taken to know weather mass production will be more effective or not.
- LITERATURE REVIEWHISTORY ASPECT OF MOSQUITO REPELLENT
Traditionally, various types of substances have been used to repel mosquitoes. These include such things as smoke, plant extracts, oil, tars, muds, etc.
As insects repellants technology became more sophisticated, individual compounds were discovered and isolated. This allows the formulation of new and more efficient forms of mosquito repellants.
The first truly effective active ingredient used in mosquito repellants was citronella oil[3]. This material is a herbal extract derived from the citronella plant, an Asian grass. While citronella has been used for centuries for medical purposes, its repellence was only accidentally discovered in 1901, when it was used as a hairdressing fragrance. Since citronella oil is a fragrant material, it is thought that the chemical terpenes of which it is composed are responsible for its repellant activity.
Citronella oil does repel mosquitoes, but it has certain characteristics which limit its effectiveness. For example, it is very volatile and evaporates so quickly from the surface to which it is applied. Also, large amount are needed to be effective. The disadvantages of using citronella oil prompted researchers to study alternative synthetic compounds many of the early attempt at creating synthetic insect repellants were initiated by the Unites State military. Out of this research, the discovery of the repellant dimethylphthalate in 1929. This material showed a good level of effectiveness against certain insect species, but it was ineffective against others. Indalone was found to repel insect in 1937 and Rutgers 612 (2-ethyl-1,3-hexane diol) was synthesized soon after. Like dimethylpthalate, these materials had certain limitations which prevented their widespread use[3].
Since none of the available materials were ideal repellents, research into new synthetic materials continued. In 1955, scientists synthesized DEET (n-n-diethyl-netatoluamide) currently the most widely used active ingredient for mosquito repellents.
After its discovery, repellent manufacturers developed many different forms in which to deliver DEET, such as creams, lotions and aerosols[4].
- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDE
Insecticides are usually classified into the following three classes.
STOMACH OR INTERNAL INSECTICIDES
These insecticides which are taken up by the insects are called stomach poisons or insecticides. Example, Boric acid.
CONTACT OR EXTERNAL INSECTICIDES
These insecticides destroy the insect simply by external bodily contact. Example Rotenone.
FUMIGANTS
These insecticides act on the insects through the respiratory system. Example hydrogen cyanide, carbon disulphide, nicotine, p-dichlorobenzene, etc. [5].
Insecticides may be applied as a spray, liquid or in suspension, as a dust or as a gas.
- CHEMICAL INSECTICIDES MAY BE CLASSIFIED AS INORGANIC, NATURAL AND ORGANIC INSECTICIDES.
INORGANIC INSECTICIDES
Before world war II nearly all the insecticides were inorganic compounds of which arsenic, fluorine, sulphur and cyanide compounds were the most important. In recent years, inorganic insecticides have been greatly displaced by organic compounds in many applications.
The major disadvantage of inorganic insecticides is their comparable toxicity to man and other warm blooded animals. Upon handling and so as residues on food products[6].
SOME INORGANIC INSECTICIDES ARE;
- Lead Arsenate
- Calcium Arsenate
- Paris green
- Flourine compounds
- Sulphur and sulphur compounds
- Hydrocyanide acid[6]
NATURAL OR PLANT INSECTICIDES
Plant materials yield some of the most widely used insecticides and many of them are being supplemented by the synthetic organic insecticides. The roots stem, leaves or flowers may be finely grounded and used as such or active parts may be extracted and used either alone or with other toxicants and auxiliary materials.
SOME NATURAL INSECTICIDES ARE
- Nicotine
- Rotenone
- Allethrin
- Pyrethrins[6]
DDT was first prepared by O. Zeidler, a German Ph.D. student in 1874. Its insecticidal properties were however discovered by a Swiss chemist Paul Muller in 1939. DDT kills lice and mosquitoes which carries germs of typhus and malaria fever respectively. DDT was the first chemical to have the property of killing insects only by means of contact. DDT is still the backbone of many insects control programs and is widely used as a household insecticide against leaf hoppers and potatoes and in cotton insect control. DDT is a remarkable powerful and persistent insecticide that is soluble in kerosene oil, petrol and ethyl alcohol but insoluble in water. DDT is manufactured by exothermic condensation of chlorobenzene with chloral at about 300C in the presence of oleum or 99% sulphuric acid.
| H | |||||
DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Tdrichloroethane) Fig II [1]
In the 1940s, the properties of the new insecticide DDT seemed close to miraculous. In tropic, DDT save millions of lives by killing the mosquitoes that spread malaria, increase crop yields resulting from DDT’s destruction of insects pests saved million or more from starvation
DDT and other substances that undergo biological manifestation have two properties that makes them dangerous;
- They do not readily break down into harmless substances
- They are fat soluble but not water soluble, therefore, they accumulate in the bodies of animals particularly in the fat, rather than being broken down and excreted in the watery urine. Because the transfer of energy from lower to higher tropic level is extremely inefficient, herbivores must eat large quantities of plant materials (which may have been spread with DDT), carnivores must eat many herbivores and so on.
In1951, the first DDT resistant strains of mosquitoes were reported from Greece, Panama and U. S. A. In many parts of the world, spraying no longer prevents transmission of malaria. In addition, the passage of persistent insecticides such as DDT though the food chain become an increasing problem to birds and mammals at the top of chain[4].
- BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDES
Recent efforts to reduce bread spectrum toxins added to environment have brought biological insecticides back to vogue. An example is the development and increase in use of Bacillus thuringieness, a bacterial disease of Lepidopterans and some other insects. It is used as a lavicide against a wide variety of caterpillars. Because it has little effect on other organism. It is considered more environmentally friendly than synthetic insecticides. The toxin forms. Baccillus Thuringiensis. Baccillus Thuringiensis. Toxin has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering[7].
- TOXIC EFFECT OF REPELLENT
Some insecticide kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was freshly sprayed with insecticides or when they mistakes insecticides granules on the ground for food and eat them.
Sprayed insecticides may drift the area to which it is applied into wildlife areas, especially when sprayed aerially[4].
DDT can be a threat to health or the environment when used under wrong conditions. It causes progressively higher concentration in the body of the animal farther up the food chain.
Biological parameters were used to evaluate the toxic effect of different brands of mosquito coil smoke in experimental rats. The smoke from the coil produced significant increase (P<0.05) in the level of total protein, total albumen, bilirubin and blood/urea nitrogen when animals were exposed to smoke for 14 days[7].
Similarly, the smoke from the coils also cause an elevation in the activities of aspirate amino transference and alanine amino transference. Although the smoke from the coil did not produce lesions in hearts, lungs and liver examined, the increase in liver enzyme activities could be due to early liver damage[8].
Epidemiological studies have shown that long-term exposure to mosquito coil smoke can induce asthma and persistent wheeze in children. These studies also shows that one burning mosquito coil produces the same amount of particulate mass (diameter up to 2.5nm) as 75-137 burning cigarette would, and the coil can be as high as that released from 51 burning cigarettes[8].
- MOSQUITO COIL
Mosquito coil is a mosquito repelling incense usually shaped into a spiral and typically made from a dried paste of pyrethrum powder. Mosquito coils are widely used as mosquito repellants. The major active ingredients of mosquito coilsare purethrins accounting for about 0.3 – 0.4% of the coil mass. When a mosquito coil is burnt, the insecticides evaporates (pyrethrin, PAH, aldehyde, etc) with smoke, which prevent the mosquito from entering the room and harm those already in the room. The remaining components of mosquito coils include filters, binders, dyes and other additives capable of burning well without flame. He components generates large amunt of submicrometer particles and gaseous pollutants such as acenephthene, paranthrene, etc.
Mosquito coils are often used overnight in sleeping quarters where continous exposures may occur. Chronic exposure to coil smokes occur during rainy periods because mosquitoes are found to be more active in the environment due to collection of water and increase in green plants[9].
1.4.1 HOW MOSQUITO COILS WORK
Mosquito coils are burned on specially designed stands placed inside more attractive looking mosquito coils holders which contain holes to let the smoke out. The holders can usually be hung up or laid flat. Each mosquito coil slowly burns for around 8 hours, during which time repelling active ingredients such as pyrethoids or pyrethrum disperse with the smoke. The combination of ingredients in the smoke coil either prevents mosquitoes from entering the surrounding area, encourages them to leave the area if they have not already done so, or knocks the insect down and kills the[10].
1.4.2 HOW TO USE MOSQUITO COILS
Mosquito coils are particularly useful for protection against mosquitoes when sitting outside at night. They can be placed on a table so people can congregate around them. It helps to stay in the vicinity of the smoke given off, but this may be difficult if the smoke is carried away by the wind. A good tip is to place a mosquito coil down on the ground by people’s ankle and feet, as this is an area mosquitoes seem to bite frequently.
Again, the less wind there is, the more likely the mosquito coil smoke will have a chance to be effective. Mosquito coils are generally meant for use outdoors, but if they have to be used indoors, it is wise to make sure rooms are well ventilated. Packs of multiple mosquito coils are available with a coil stand included[10].
1.4.3 ADVANTAGES OF USING A MOSQUITO COIL
Mosquito coils nowadays burn without flame for up to eight hours of continuous repelling action. In quantitative tests, they provide about 80% protection. Mosquito coils are also cheep and need no special equipment to use it in other than just lighting it up. They are portable and fit into normal household practices of lighting candles or incense[11].
1.4.4 DISADVANTAGES OF USING MOSQUITO COILS
There are several hazards that we know to be caused by mosquito coils. In 1999, sparks from mosquito coils ignited a fire that swept through a three-story dormitory building at a summer camp, 23 persons including 19 children died in the blaze in South Korea[12].
The long-term exposure calls for concerns on the potential toxicological effects of smoke on humans[8].
- ACTIVE INGREDIENTS IN MOSQUITO COIL
The active ingredients found in mosquito coils can be some of the following;
- PYRETHRUM (Natural, powdered material from a kind of chrysanthernum plant, performing moderated)
- PYRETHRINS (Extract of insecticidal chemicals in pyrethrum)
- ALLETHRIN Some times d-trans-alletrin)
(The first synthetic pyrethrin)
- ESOBIOTHRIN (a form of allethrin)
- DIBUTYL HYDROXYL TOLUENE (BHT) (an optional additive to prevent pyrethroid from oxidizing during burning).
- PIPERONYL BUTOXIDE (PBO) (an optional additive to improve the effectiveness of pyrethroid)
- N-(2-ethylexyl)-bicyclo-(2,2,1)hept-5-ene-2,3-dicarboximide (MGK 264) (an optional additive, to improve effectiveness of a pyrethroid)[13].
- CITRUS SINENSIS/ORANGE PLANT
The orange plant is a hybrid of ancient cultivated origin, possibly between Pomelo (citrus maxima) and tangerine (citrus reticulate). It is small flavouring tree growing to about 10m tall with evergreen leaves, which are arranged alternatively, of ovate shape with crenulate margins and 4-10cm long. The orange fruit is a hesperidium, a type of berry[14].
Orange originated in southeast Asia. The fruit of Citrus sinensis is called sweet orange to distinguish it from citrus aurantium, the bitter orange. The name is thought to ultimately derived from the sanskirt, for the orange tree, with its final form developing languages. In a number of languages.
In a number of language,it is known as a “Chinese apple” (e.g Dutch Sinaasappel, “China’s apple”.)[15].
Orange can be found in almost all parts of Nigeria.
SPECIES OF CESTRUM
The orange peels (cestrum) is gotten from sweet orange (ctrus sinensis)
1.5.1 IDENTIFICATION
Botanical name Citrus Sinensis
English name Sweet Orange
Common name` Oroma (Igbo)
Family Rutaceae
Genus Citrus
Order Sapindales
1.5.2 USES OF CITRUS SINENSIS
1. In the home,oranges are commonly peeled segmented and utilized in fruit cups, salads, gelatins and numerous other deserts and as garnishes on cake, meats and poultry dishes.
- They are squeezed daily in the kitchen for juice.
- In South America, a dozen whole, peeled oranges are boiled in 3 pints (1.41 litres) of slightly sweetened water for 20min and then strained and the liquid is poured over small squares of toast and slices of lemon and served as soup.
- Whole oranges are sliced, dried and pulverized and the powder is added to baked goods as flavoring.
- Dried orange peels can be used as home made bath oils.
- Limonene carbon-base compounds that makes up around 95% of the oil found in orange peels is often used to give household cleaners a citrus smell.
- O range peels can be applied on the skin, in the night to repel mosquitoes.
- Orange peels can be used as scent.
1.5.3 FOOD VALUE.
The Chemistry of the Orange is affected by many factors. On the average, “Valencia”, Washington Navel”, and other commercial oranges have been found to poses the value shown in the page.
1.5.4 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE/USES
PULP: citrus (3/4 being a by-product of orange juice extraction) is highly valued as pelleted stocked feed with a protein content marketed as cat litter. It is a source of edible yeast non-potable alcohol, ascorbic, and hesperidin.
PEEL: In addition to its food uses, orange peel oil is a prized scent in perfume and soaps because of its 90-95% limestone content, it has a lethal effect on mosquitoes, houseflies, fleas and fireants. Its potential as an insecticide is under investigation. Its being used in engine cleaners and in waterless hand-cleaners in heavy mechanical repairs shops.
Terpenes extract from the outer layer of the peels are important in resins and in formulating paints for ships.
SEED: Oil derived from orange and other citrus seeds is employed as a cooking oil and in soap and plastics. The high- protein seed residue is suitable for human food and an ingredient in cattle feed, and the hills enter into fertilizer mixtures.
FLOWER AND FOLIAGE: The essential oils distilled from orange flowers and foliage are important in perfume manufacturing. Some petitgrain oil is distilated from the leaves, flowers, twigs and small whole unripe fruits.
WOODS: The wood is yellowish, it has been valued for furniture, cabinet work, turnery and engraver’s blocks.
Branches are fashioned into walking-sticks.
1.5.5 MEDICAL USES/IMPORTANCE
- Orange are eaten to allay fever and catarrh
- The roasted pulp is prepared as a poultice for skin disease.
- The fresh peel is rubbed on acne
- In the mid-1950s, the health benefit of eating peeled, whole oranges was much publicized because of its protopectin, bioflavonoids and inositol (related to vitamin B).
- Rutin and other bioflavonoids were for a while much advocated for treating capillary fragility, hemorrhages and other physiological problems.
- An infusion of the immature fruit is taken to relieve stomach and intestinal complaints.
- The inner bark, macerated and infused in wine, is taken as a tonic and carminative.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to any of the numbers below
08068231953, 08137701720, 08154275408 (1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
OR you drop them on our WhatsApp, 08137701720
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
EXTRACTION AND DETERMINATION OF PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OIL FROM COTTON SEED
ABSTRACT
During the recent past, world prices of agricultural products and their by-products have experienced substantial volatility. This was particularly noticeable for the price of cotton lint, but since 2007 the world has also witnessed a similar fluctuation in the prices of cotton by-products such as cotton oil, cotton cake, and substitutes for these products such as Asian palm oil. Given that lint prices and those of other products derived from seed cotton have a tendency to move in opposite directions, cotton producers in the C-4 countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Chad) are asking if the existing price mechanisms that set producer cotton prices in their countries are taking into account the true contribution of cotton by-products to the total value of the seed cotton sold by farmers. A parallel question raised by many actors concerns the differences in the prices offered to farmers from one country to the next in the C-4 region. Sometimes these differences cannot be explained by differences in production and transport costs, leading one to ask if the producer prices are really tied to price movements in world markets where all the C-4 countries are selling their cotton lint.
Given the interest of the C-4 countries in these questions, the West African Cotton Improvement Program (WACIP), financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) undertook a study on the role of cotton by-products (referred to as “co-products” in some countries that believe their importance should be elevated) in the cotton sector in general and in the pricing mechanisms in particular.
- A comparative analysis of price mechanisms currently in use and related policies (e.g., subsidies, taxes, etc.);
- A comparative analysis of the organizational and institutional structure of the sectors (production, processing, and marketing) and the by-product subsectors;
- An analysis of the possibilities available to reduce the dependence of the cotton sector on the instability of cotton lint prices via changes in the way that by-products such as cotton seed, oil, and cake are incorporated in the pricing mechanisms that set producer seed cotton prices.
CHAPTER ONE
- INTRODUCTION
Cottonseed oil is a cooking oil extracted from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil. Cotton seed has a similar structure to other oilseeds such as sunflower seed, having an oil-bearing kernel surrounded by a hard outer hull; in processing, the oil is extracted from the kernel. Cottonseed oil is used for salad oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing, and similar products because of its flavor stability.
- BACKGROUND STUDY
- Composition
Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids (18% monounsaturated, and 52% polyunsaturated), 26% saturated fatty acids.[3] When it is fully hydrogenated, its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids (1.5% monounsaturated, and 0.5% polyunsaturated). According to the cottonseed oil industry, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results. Gossypol is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order Malvaceae, such as okra. This naturally occurring coloured compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural insect resistance. The three key steps of refining, bleaching and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. Ferric chloride is often used to decolorize cotton seed oil.
This profile envisages the establishment of a plant for the production of cotton seed oil with a capacity of 4,128 tonnes per annum.
- Physical properties
Once processed, cottonseed oil has a mild taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color, the amount of color depending on the amount of refining.[11] It has a relatively high smoke point as a frying medium. Density ranges from 0.917 g/cm3 to 0.933 g/cm3.[12] Like other long-chain fatty acid oils, cottonseed oil has a smoke point of about 450 °F (232 °C),[4] and is high in tocopherols, which also contribute its stability, giving products that contain it a long shelf life, hence manufacturers’ proclivity to use it in packaged goods.
- Economic History
The by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century.[13] While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid 19th centuries, a largely worthless stock of cottonseed grew.[13] Although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers.[14]
In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the English blockade during the Napoleonic Wars.[14] The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply.[13] Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting.[13] Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America’s increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil.[14] But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years.[14] This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee invented a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed.[13] With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard.[13] But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged.[13]
Cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards.[13] Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, but this practice was uncovered in 1884.[13] Armour and Company, an American meatpacking and food processing company, sought to corner the lard market and realized that it had purchased more lard than the existing hog population could have produced.[13] A congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as ‘‘lard compound.”[14] Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil and Italy banned the product completely in 1883.[14] Both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value.[14]
It was cottonseeds depressed value that lead a newly formed Procter & Gamble to utilize its oil.[14] The Panic of 1837 caused the two brothers-in-law to merge their candlestick and soap manufacturing businesses in an effort to minimize costs and weather the bear market. Looking for a replacement for expensive animal fats in production, the brothers finally settled on cottonseed oil. Procter & Gamble cornered the cottonseed oil market to circumvent the meat packer’s monopoly on the price. But as electricity emerged, the demand for candles decreased. Procter and Gamble then found an edible use for cottonseed oil. Through patented technology, the brothers were able to hydrogenate cottonseed oil and develop a substance that closely resembled lard. In 1911, Procter & Gamble launched an aggressive marketing campaign to publicize its new product, Crisco, a vegetable shortening that could be used in place of lard. Crisco placed ads in major newspapers advertising that the product was “easier on digestion…a healthier alternative to cooking with animal fats. . . and more economical than butter.” The company also gave away free cookbooks, with every recipe calling for Crisco. By the 1920s the company developed cookbooks for specific ethnicities in their native tongues. Additionally, Crisco starting airing radio cooking programs. Similarly, in 1899 David Wesson, a food chemist, developed deodorized cottonseed oil, Wesson cooking oil. Wesson Oil also was marketed heavily and became quite popular too.
Over the next 30 years cottonseed oil became the pre-eminent oil in the United States. Crisco and Wesson oil became direct substitutes for lard and other more expensive oils in baking, frying, sautéing, and salad dressings. But by World War Two cottonseed oil shortages forced the utilization of another direct substitute, soybean oil. By 1944, soybean oil production outranked cottonseed oil production due to cottonseed shortages and soybean oil costs falling below that of cottonseed oil. By 1950, soybean oil replaced cottonseed oil in the use of shortenings like Crisco due to soybeans comparatively low price. Prices for cottonseed were also increased by the replacement of cotton acreage by corn and soybeans, a trend fueled in large part by the boom in demand for corn syrup and ethanol. Cottonseed oil and production continued to decline throughout the mid and late 20th century.
In the mid to late 2000s, the consumer trend of avoiding trans fats, and mandatory labeling of trans fats in some jurisdictions, sparked an increase in the consumption of cottonseed oil, with some health experts:220 and public health agencies recommending it as a healthy oil. Crisco and other producers have been able to reformulate cottonseed oil so it contains little to no trans fats. Still, some health experts claim that cottonseed oil’s high ratio of polyunsaturated fats to monounsaturated fats and processed nature make it unhealthy.
- Use in food
Cottonseed oil has traditionally been used in foods such as potato chips and is a primary ingredient in Crisco, the shortening product.[22] But since it is significantly less expensive than olive oil or canola oil, cottonseed has started to be used in a much wider range of processed foods, including cereals, breads and snack foods.[23]
- Use as insecticide
In an agricultural context, the toxicity of cottonseed oil may be considered beneficial: Oils, including vegetable oils, have been used for centuries to control insect and mite pests. This oil has been generally considered the most insecticidal of vegetable oils.
- Concerns about fats and toxicity
The popular website of Andrew Weil, a doctor of integrative medicine, indicates that he “regard(s) it as unhealthy because it is too high in saturated fat and too low in monounsaturated fat.”[25] His site also states: “What’s more, cottonseed oil may contain natural toxins and probably has unacceptably high levels of pesticide residues (cotton is not classified as a food crop, and farmers use many agrichemicals when growing it)”[25] and this claim has been repeated by other websites.[26] However, the claim that cottonseed is not regulated as a food crop is not true. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) contains regulations for maximum pesticide residue allowed in cottonseed, as it does for all other food crops.[27] Furthermore, the natural toxin, gossypol, is eliminated in the refining process of commercially edible cottonseed oil, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has documented the lack of appreciable residues in cottonseed and cottonseed oil.
- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The present study is an attempt to analyze the functioning of the power loom industry & assessing the problems suffered by the industry in Nigeria in general and Gombe oil processing Limited in particular. The study is expected to reveal the deficiencies if any, and enable to suggest appropriate measures for the problems of the industry, and thereby serve the interest of weavers, traders & consumers more effectively.
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study is integrated and comprehensive study on powerloom industry of Malegaon projecting its detailed picture. This may help to enlighten the pathways to action and give broad indication for different policy options. The present study is an attempt to discover the factors that accounts for its vitality, strength and weakness
The present demand for the proposed product is estimated at 59,313 tonnes per annum. The demand is expected to reach at 184,350 tonnes by the year 2020.
- OBJECTIVES
The study seeks to examine & focusing, considering the facts in a comprehensive manner the state of functioning & problems of Powerloom industry in the state of Maharashtra
emphasising Malegaon to the following context.
1) To study the nature, administration, status and scope of the Powerloom Industry of Maharashtra with special reference to Malegaon.
2) To analyse the Powerloom Industry of Malegaon in the context of Socio- Economic Development.
3) To suggest measures for modernisation in respect to technology upgradation, quality control and competitive marketing to face the challenges of the globalization.
4) To examine production pattern and the cost structure of Powerloom industry.
5) To analyse the problems & issues of Powerloom industry.
6) To provide concrete recommendations for overall development of Powerloom industry and to enhance its efficiency.
- HYPOTHESES ANALYSIS
The first hypothesis that “The Powerloom sector has tremendous potential and strength to meet the future challenges as it has proven its performance and emergence of Powerloom sector has transformed an art into a modern industry” has been proved true by the analytical study of the statistical data about powerloom industry. The analytical study of the statistical data about decentralised powerloom sector shows that the industry’s growth is remarkable. The production trend of powerloom industry continues in the right direction. It produces around thirty thousand millions square meters annually and employing about 55 lakh workers. The Indian powerloom industry is not only self sufficient in the raw materials but also it is one of the suppliers of the raw material in the global textile market. More than 40% of the cloth that goes into exports originates from this sector. The modernization process by the government has widened the scope of the
powerloom industry to further their activity and profitability. Since 2002-03, 30657 Semi Automatic, 10303 Automatic and 26972 Shuttleless looms were installed under modernization scheme. The sector today not only fulfils the need of the domestic market but it exports to major countries across the world.
The study of the powerloom industry proved that the powerloom industry has tremendous potential and strength to meet the future challenges and the emergence of powerloom
sector has transformed an art into a modern industry.
1) The second hypothesis that “The terms of employment of powerloom workers need updation” has been proved true by the study of terms of employment of workers in
Malegaon. The above said hypothesis was tested with the help of Chi –Square Test. The relevant variables were selected and three formulated sub-hypotheses were tested.
The first formulated hypothesis “Workers’ job security is dependent on working conditions of the factory” has been found valid. The critical value of the Chi Square at 0.05 level of confidence for 9 degree of freedom was 16.919 which is less than calculated value of Chi Square i.e. 96.471 hence the null hypothesis was rejected.
The second formulated hypothesis “Workers’ Satisfaction with wages is dependent on satisfaction of job” has also been found valid. The critical value of the Chi Square at 0.05 level of confidence for 9 degree of freedom was 16.919 which is less than calculated value of Chi Square i.e. 109.083 hence the null hypothesis was rejected.
The third formulated hypothesis “Workers’ satisfaction with wages is dependent on Welfare Facilities” has been found valid. The critical value of the Chi Square at 0.05 level of confidence for 9 degree of freedom was 16.919 which is less than calculated value of Chi Square i.e. 116.685 hence the null hypothesis was rejected.
It is clear that the owners of powerloom units failed to provide basic amenities to the workers. The majority of the workers are not satisfied with the working conditions of the
factory. They are working with dust and fumes, no proper lighting and ventilation, ignorance of cleanliness, no care on hygienic conditions and no safety measures to avoid accidents.
Their jobs are unsecured and majority of the workers are not satisfied with their jobs in terms of welfare facilities and wages.
The study of terms of employment of workers proved that their terms and conditions need updation.
2) The third hypothesis “The Powerloom industry needs more Upgradation and Modernisation in the present scenario.” has been proved true by the study of technology level of powerlooms.
The above said hypothesis was tested with the help of Chi-Square Test. The relevant variables were selected and two formulated sub-hypotheses were tested.
The first formulated hypothesis “Acquisition of Powerlooms is dependent on total investment” has been found valid. The critical value of the Chi Square at 0.05 level of confidence for 4 degree of freedom was 9.488 which is less than calculated value of Chi Square i.e. 28.614 hence the null hypothesis was rejected.
The second formulated hypothesis “Total Investment is dependent on Type of Looms” has been found valid. The critical value of the Chi Square at 0.05 level of confidence for
2 degree of freedom was 5.99 which is less than calculated value of Chi Square i.e. 52.898 hence the null hypothesis was rejected.
The decentralised powerloom sector plays a vital role in meeting the clothing needs of the country. The powerloom industry has the intrinsic strength not only to withstand but also progress in post WTO regime. But, the industry has to modernise itself not only in machinery sector but also in adopting newer technology in manufacturing, adopting newer marketing strategy and diversification towards new products.
India has ranked first in the total number of powerlooms in the world. India has 0.50 lakh shuttleless powerlooms with ranking of 11. While India’s major competitor China has
second position in the world in terms of number of powerlooms. But China has about 3.39 lakh shuttleless powerlooms with 1st ranking. The growth rate of China’s textile economy is faster than India. In Malegaon there are about 68 shuttleless powerlooms out of 1.5 lakh powerlooms. With the advent of globalised free-trade regime the Indian
market is open for the other countries. The Indian powerloom industry has to face the competition from low cost and high quality textile products. So the pace of modernisation needs more speed.
It is clear that the powerloom industry need more upgradation and modernisation in the present scenario.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
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(2) Email Address
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BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
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Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION PROTECTION MEASURES FOR FEMALE PATIENTS OF CHILD BEARING AGE
ABSTRACT
Radiation protection entails the harmful effect of ionizing radiation, the interaction of any amount of ionizing radiation of any type, such as X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles with a biological system results in the absorption of the energy of the radiation by the system. This in turn may result in effects that become manifest in the exposed individuals (somatic effects) or appear in the descendant of exposed individuals (Genetic or Hereditary effects). The physics of the absorption process is over in 10-16 seconds, the chemistry takes longer, since the life time of the free radical is about 10-6 seconds, the biology takes days to months for cell killing, years for carcinogenesis, and generations for heredity damage. Available information on human susceptibility to effects of ionizing radiations has it that the lethal dose for 50% of the exposed population to die within thirty days of exposure is about three gray, for whole body exposure. Some organs and tissues are more sensitive to radiation and some are less. More sensitive tissues are blood forming organs, reproductive organs are those that constitute the nervous system. Death of a person may result from the overall exposure of the body for the destruction of vital organs. Acute exposure and chronic exposure at equal total doses may or may not produce the same effects.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Radiation is all around us, it is naturally present in our environment and has been since the birth of this planet. Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There two classes of radiation, ionizing and non ionizing radiation. Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes. As a matter of convention, ionizing radiation is classified as photons(X rays and gamma rays) or particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles). When ionizing radiation passes through matter, it may interact with whole atom electrons, nuclei or nucleons.
This interaction process in general is often described as collision. In this case of practical interest, the interaction results in the full transfer of energy of the incident radiation to electrons or nuclei of the constituent atoms or to charged particle products of nuclear reactions. The major sources of ionizing radiation that were available until 1930s were naturally occurring radioactive substance and low energy X-ray. But today, ionizing radiation can be produced from particle accelerations (Shalak and Chien, 1986) and is present in the environment, it is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, so instrument such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence.
According to World Health Organization, there are about 250 million cases of work-related injuries per year worldwide.1 One of the jobs that contribute to these occupational injuries is non-industrial welding, especially in developing countries including Nigeria. Welders cut and join metal parts using flame, electric arc or other sources of heat. There are three main classes of welding, namely, arc, oxyacetylenefuel
and robotic welding. Some of the hazards of this occupation include ultraviolet (UV) and infrared radiation (IR) exposure, fumes and particulate generation, thermal burns, occupational heat stress, exposure to electromagnetic fields, and electrocution.2 Similarly, the excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to UV radiation may lead to `arc eye’ or `flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage.2,3 Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes
containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and influenza-like condition called metal fume fever.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. While adherence to these precautions is nearly universal in the developed world, little is known about the situation in developing world including Nigeria.
In metropolitan Kaduna, the former administrative capital of northern Nigeria, welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops. This group has no organized occupational health service and their adherence to safety measures is unknown. We, therefore assessed the level of awareness of these hazards among welders in Kaduna metropolis and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Welders are often exposed to potential workplace hazards that can be injurious to their health especially when exposure is on a regular and cumulative basis. The excessive high temperature generated by the hot oxyacetylene flame or the electric current may lead to burns and electric shocks2.
Injuries such as lacerations and cuts by sharp or pointed metal panes, from high velocity particles and occasional explosions of the oxyacetylene gas tanks may also occur2. The excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to ultra violet radiation may lead to ‘arc eye’ or ‘flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage. Hearing impairment may result from exposure to high noise level produced by the welding machine. Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and to the influenza-like condition known as metal fume feve. There have been reports of carcinogenic and mutagenic effects due to chronic exposure to welding fumes in animals
that may be extrapolated to man.8-10. Other organs, which may be affected by welding fumes, include the kidneys and the reproductive organs leading to reduction in sperm count and fecundity.
Welding offers employment to various individuals in Benin City, Nigeria. The welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops with about welders per workshop. They have no form of organised occupational health service.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. It is therefore pertinent to assess the level of awareness of these hazards among welders and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view
to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To find out how much, the non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard.
2. To know if they actually practice radiation protection.
3. To identify the basic principle of radiation protection.
4. To assess the knowledge and awareness of radiation among welders in Nigeria.
5. To examine the extent of eye protection practices and symptoms among welders in the Nigeria.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
1. How much does non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard?
2. Does non radiation workers actually practice radiation protection?
3. What are the basic principle of radiation protection?
4. Do welder in Nigeria have full knowledge and awareness of radiation practice?
5. To what extent does non radiation workers practice eye protection practices?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOYTHESES
H0: Non radiation workers have no knewledge about radiation hazard.
H1: Non radiation workers have full knewledge about radiation hazard.
1.6 SIGNFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will help to create awareness about Radiation protection to general public.
ii). Also help to prompt the personnel about the effects of ionizing radiation.
Also help reinforce existing knowledge to the non radiation workers.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This scope of this research work is a study of radiation protection awareness in non non radiation workers.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to any of the numbers below
08068231953, 08137701720, 08154275408 (1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
OR you drop them on our WhatsApp, 08137701720
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
DETERMINATION OF HYDROGEN CYANIDE IN CASSAVA
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of the study
Hydrogen cyanide is a very small, linear molecule. It is simply H-C-N. The carbon atom is connected to the nitrogen by a strong triple bond, whereas the hydrogen is much more weakly attached. Plucking off the hydrogen atom leaves the negatively charged and highly reactive cyanide ion, CN¯.
Cyanide is known to form strong bonds with metals, and this property is exploited in purifying gold from its ore. Gold ore is stirred in vats that contain a solution of sodium cyanide to form soluble gold cyanide complexes. Although very large amounts of this highly poisonous material are used, there is nothing to fear because almost all of it is recycled. Nevertheless, the technique remains controversial because of the risk of accidentally releasing large amounts of highly toxic cyanide compounds into the environment.
Cyanide is one of the quickest acting poisons, hence it is famously referred to many times in thriller stories, as a murder weapon or in the form of a suicide pill given to secret agents in case they are captured. Its toxicity arises from the affinity of the cyanide ion to iron atoms. When cyanide ions are present in the human body, they quickly bind to iron atoms inside cells. In doing so, they inhibit an important enzyme – cytochrome C oxidase, which occurs inside the energy-producing mitochondria of a cell. The enzyme is essential to life because it catalyses the final stage of glucose oxidation. When it is blocked, the source of energy within the body quickly dries up, immediately affecting the central nervous system and the heart. Binding of cyanide to the iron atom is irreversible in the sense that it can only be removed by chemical attack. On cyanide consumption, within minutes the victim becomes unconscious although continues breathing, and slowly the heart gives out, causing death.
Hydrogen cyanide’s action as poison is not just restricted to the movies, though. Some varieties of Cassava, which is a staple food of 500 million people, contain enough cyanide to kill six people per kilogram of the crop. Fortunately though, the methods used to cook Cassava ensure that, if done properly, a person eating a kilogram of Cassava will receive only one-fifth the lethal dose of cyanide. The white roots must be soaked or boiled in water, or fermented to remove the cyanide. This processing is often done industrially to produce safe foodstuffs like cassava flour and tapioca. Despite the availability of techniques that allow for safe consumption, cyanide poisoning by Cassava became a common problem in the 1980s, especially in the drought afflicted areas of Africa where people were not willing to take the right measures to prepare Cassava before consuming it. Seeds of fruits like apples, cherries and almonds also contain HCN, but in such small amounts that they pose no health risks.
But as bad as cyanide poisoning seems, a number of antidotes have been developed and their mechanism of action enables the cyanide ion to latch on to another molecule instead of binding to the iron atom in cytochrome oxidase. One such sacrificial molecule which is available in the human body is haemoglobin. But to enable the iron atom in haemoglobin to pick up the cyanide ion, it is necessary to oxidiseFe(II) to Fe(III). This can be achieved by injecting either sodium nitrite or 4-dimethylaminophenol. Other sacrificial molecules that can be introduced into the human body are hydroxycobalamin, a relative of vitamin B12 – or kelocyanor, which both employ cobalt to mop up cyanide ions.
Bearing this in mind, it could come as a surprise that chemical industries around the world produce enough hydrogen cyanide every month to kill every living person on Earth. But of course, most of it is used to produce a wide variety of organic compounds.
For example, adiponitrile – made by adding HCN across the two double bonds of butadiene – is a precursor to the polymer Nylon, which is used for a variety of applications from making composite materials to being used as sutures after surgery. It is also used to synthesise the essential-to-life amino acids for commercial use.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The ability to easily form a plethora of organic compounds, with many reagents and under a variety of conditions, has made researchers think about hydrogen cyanide’s role in the origin of life – leading to an ongoing debate. Those supporting the argument claim that hydrogen cyanide could have well been formed by lightning discharges in the prehistoric atmosphere of our planet. The presence of other chemicals at the time may have enabled the synthesis of the amino acids that form the basis of our life.
Whichever way the debate goes, hydrogen cyanide is a fascinating molecule – maybe the giver, sometimes the taker, and in many ways today also the supporter of life.
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the nature of hydrogen cyanide in cassava
2. To understand the effects of hydrogen cyanide
3. To understand the various processes of extracting hydrogen cyanide from cassava
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the nature of hydrogen cyanide in cassava
2. What are the effects of hydrogen cyanide
3. What are the various processes of extracting hydrogen cyanide from cassava
1.5 Research Hypothesis
H0: Hydrogen cyanide does not have a significant presence in cassava
H1: Hydrogen cyanide haS a significant presence in cassava
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to any of the numbers below
08068231953, 08137701720, 08154275408 (1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
OR you drop them on our WhatsApp, 08137701720
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720, 09070569307, 08154275408
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
DETERMINATION OF CYANIDE CONTENTS AND ESSENTIAL MINERALS IN CASSAVA
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of the study
Hydrogen cyanide is a very small, linear molecule. It is simply H-C-N. The carbon atom is connected to the nitrogen by a strong triple bond, whereas the hydrogen is much more weakly attached. Plucking off the hydrogen atom leaves the negatively charged and highly reactive cyanide ion, CN¯.
Cyanide is known to form strong bonds with metals, and this property is exploited in purifying gold from its ore. Gold ore is stirred in vats that contain a solution of sodium cyanide to form soluble gold cyanide complexes. Although very large amounts of this highly poisonous material are used, there is nothing to fear because almost all of it is recycled. Nevertheless, the technique remains controversial because of the risk of accidentally releasing large amounts of highly toxic cyanide compounds into the environment.
Cyanide is one of the quickest acting poisons, hence it is famously referred to many times in thriller stories, as a murder weapon or in the form of a suicide pill given to secret agents in case they are captured. Its toxicity arises from the affinity of the cyanide ion to iron atoms. When cyanide ions are present in the human body, they quickly bind to iron atoms inside cells. In doing so, they inhibit an important enzyme – cytochrome C oxidase, which occurs inside the energy-producing mitochondria of a cell. The enzyme is essential to life because it catalyses the final stage of glucose oxidation. When it is blocked, the source of energy within the body quickly dries up, immediately affecting the central nervous system and the heart. Binding of cyanide to the iron atom is irreversible in the sense that it can only be removed by chemical attack. On cyanide consumption, within minutes the victim becomes unconscious although continues breathing, and slowly the heart gives out, causing death.
Hydrogen cyanide’s action as poison is not just restricted to the movies, though. Some varieties of Cassava, which is a staple food of 500 million people, contain enough cyanide to kill six people per kilogram of the crop. Fortunately though, the methods used to cook Cassava ensure that, if done properly, a person eating a kilogram of Cassava will receive only one-fifth the lethal dose of cyanide. The white roots must be soaked or boiled in water, or fermented to remove the cyanide. This processing is often done industrially to produce safe foodstuffs like cassava flour and tapioca. Despite the availability of techniques that allow for safe consumption, cyanide poisoning by Cassava became a common problem in the 1980s, especially in the drought afflicted areas of Africa where people were not willing to take the right measures to prepare Cassava before consuming it. Seeds of fruits like apples, cherries and almonds also contain HCN, but in such small amounts that they pose no health risks.
But as bad as cyanide poisoning seems, a number of antidotes have been developed and their mechanism of action enables the cyanide ion to latch on to another molecule instead of binding to the iron atom in cytochrome oxidase. One such sacrificial molecule which is available in the human body is haemoglobin. But to enable the iron atom in haemoglobin to pick up the cyanide ion, it is necessary to oxidiseFe(II) to Fe(III). This can be achieved by injecting either sodium nitrite or 4-dimethylaminophenol. Other sacrificial molecules that can be introduced into the human body are hydroxycobalamin, a relative of vitamin B12 – or kelocyanor, which both employ cobalt to mop up cyanide ions.
Bearing this in mind, it could come as a surprise that chemical industries around the world produce enough hydrogen cyanide every month to kill every living person on Earth. But of course, most of it is used to produce a wide variety of organic compounds.
For example, adiponitrile – made by adding HCN across the two double bonds of butadiene – is a precursor to the polymer Nylon, which is used for a variety of applications from making composite materials to being used as sutures after surgery. It is also used to synthesise the essential-to-life amino acids for commercial use.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The ability to easily form a plethora of organic compounds, with many reagents and under a variety of conditions, has made researchers think about hydrogen cyanide’s role in the origin of life – leading to an ongoing debate. Those supporting the argument claim that hydrogen cyanide could have well been formed by lightning discharges in the prehistoric atmosphere of our planet. The presence of other chemicals at the time may have enabled the synthesis of the amino acids that form the basis of our life.
Whichever way the debate goes, hydrogen cyanide is a fascinating molecule – maybe the giver, sometimes the taker, and in many ways today also the supporter of life.
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the nature of hydrogen cyanide in cassava
2. To understand the effects of hydrogen cyanide
3. To understand the various processes of extracting hydrogen cyanide from cassava
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the nature of hydrogen cyanide in cassava
2. What are the effects of hydrogen cyanide
3. What are the various processes of extracting hydrogen cyanide from cassava
1.5 Research Hypothesis
H0: Hydrogen cyanide does not have a significant presence in cassava
H1: Hydrogen cyanide haS a significant presence in cassava
1.6 Limitations of the study
There was limited time and finance during the course of the research
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