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INVESTIGATION ON THE ECONOMIC AND LIFE CYCLE COST BENEFITS OF CONCRETE OVER ASPHALT PAVEMENT
ABSTRACT
The cost of road construction consists of design expenses, material extraction, construction equipment, maintenance and rehabilitation strategies, and operations over the entire service life. An economic analysis process known as Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is used to evaluate the cost-efficiency of alternatives based on the Net Present Value (NPV) concept. It is essential to evaluate the above-mentioned cost aspects in order to obtain optimum pavement life-cycle costs. However, pavement managers are often unable to consider each important element that may be required for performing future maintenance tasks. Over the last few decades, several approaches have been developed by agencies and institutions for pavement Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). While the transportation community has increasingly been utilising LCCA as an essential practice, several organisations have even designed computer programs for their LCCA approaches in order to assist with the analysis. Current LCCA methods are analysed and LCCA software is introduced in this article. Subsequently, a list of economic indicators is provided along with their substantial components. Collecting previous literature will help highlight and study the weakest aspects so as to mitigate the shortcomings of existing LCCA methods and processes. LCCA research will become more robust if improvements are made, facilitating private industries and government agencies to accomplish their economic aims.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AA Addis Ababa
AACRA Addis Ababa City Roads Authority
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACBFS Air Cooled Blast Furnace Slag
ACP Asphaltic Concrete Pavement
ACPA American Concrete Pavement Association
ACR Alkali Carbonate Reaction
ASR Alkali Silica Reaction
APA Asphalt Pavement Alliance
BCA Benefit Cost Analysis BRB Bituminous Road Base CBR California Bearing Ratio
CCP Cement Concrete Pavement
CM Cementitious material
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
DOT Department of Transportation
EF Equivalent Factor
EIRR Economic Internal Rate of Return EPA Environmental Protection Agency ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority
ESA Equivalent standard axles
ETB Ethiopian Birr
EUAC Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost FHWA Federal Highway administration GB Granular Base
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GGBFS Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
GHGs Green House Gasses
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt
IRI International Roughness Index
HDM-4 Highway Development Model – 4
IMF International Monitory Fund
JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement JUCP Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement KN Kilo Newton
Kwh Kilo Watt Hour
LCCA Life Cycle Cost Analysis
LTPP Long term Pavement Performance
MC Medium Curing
MEPDG Mechanistic Empirical Design Guide
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
NPV Net Present Value
NRC National Research Council of Canada
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
PBPPE Prefabricated Building Parts Production Enterprise
PCA Portland Cement Association
PW Present Worth
RCC Roller Compacted Concrete
RC Rapid Curing
RSDP IV Road Sector Development Program Phase IV SB Sub-Base
SCMs Supplementary Cementitious Materials
TCP Thin Concrete Pavement
URRAP Universal Rural Road Access Program
US United States
VOC Vehicle Operating Cost
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRCT
TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
CHAPTER ONE
- INTRODUCTION
- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
- SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
- OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH
- RESEARCH METHODS MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
2.2 DEFINITION OF SOME MAJOR TERMS
2.3 EXPERIENCE AND PRACTICES OF LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS (LCCA)
2.4 TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
2.5 MATERIALS FOR RIGID PAVEMENT
2.6 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.2 MAIN RESEARCH
3.2.1 Data Collection
3.2.2 Analysis Period
3.3.3 Discount Rate
3.2.4 Traffic Analysis and Pavement Design
3.2.5 Project Data Used
3.2.6 Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DESIGN LIFE
4.3 ROAD NETWORK DATA
4.4 VEHICLE FLEET AND OPERATING COSTS
4.5 TRAFFIC PROJECTION BASED ON HISTORIC DATA
4.6 ECONOMIC EVALUATION (LCCA)
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES
- CONCLUSIONS
- RECOMMENDATION
5.2 REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, highway pavement construction, maintenance and rehabilitation costs are rising dramatically. It is essential for highway agencies to utilise tools and approaches that facilitate proper decision-making by applying economics and operations research such as Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) to achieve economically reasonable long-term investments. LCCA is a method based on principles of economic analysis. It improves the estimation of the total long-term economic viability of different investment options [1]. This method finds significant application in pavement design and management [2]. A number of agencies employ the LCCA approach to estimate the economic feasibility of pavement designs over the long haul. Thus, it is very important for agencies to realistically evaluate pavement economics in order to provide suitable input to the LCCA.
As a concept, it was in the 1950s that benefit-cost analysis (BCA) was initially applied as a selection factor for various pavement design options. Then in the 1970s, LCCA principles started being implemented in some key projects at the local and national state levels for pavement design and pavement type selection [3].
Considering the mostly inadequate funding under normal circumstances, road authorities are consistently challenged with funding projects due to resource insufficiency [5]. Moreover, with the increasing demand for new road infrastructure, the demand for efficient management of old and new roads is on the rise as well, along with safety demands, accessibility and the implementation of advanced traffic management systems for decreasing socio-economic costs by mitigating maintenance-related environmental effects, traffic issues, and losses. Maintenance backlogs nonetheless increase too [6]. Road authorities thus emphasise more on better efficiency and lower expenses due to limited funds. Since maintenance expenditures normally comprise half the annual road infrastructure funds, it is very important to prioritise efficiency in road maintenance [5,7]. Thus, with respect to road objects, life-cycle costs (LCCs) are regarded as having higher priority than simply investments. Hence, road authorities are expected to realise the importance of LCCA and maintain a calculation system [8]. LCCs are also deemed to be a restraint in road design selection or the assessment of tenders [9,10]. When calculating LCCs, both road authority costs and costs of socio-economic nature should be taken into account. Road agency (authority) costs comprise expenses for planning, construction, design, maintenance, and rehabilitation. All these costs are usually the government’s responsibility to cover using tax earnings. Socio-economic costs comprise agency costs, user costs (e.g. delay costs, accident costs and vehicle operation costs), and environmental costs [7,11].
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The dramatic increase in traffic volume in built-up areas, such as the Capital Area, road corridor to the port Djibouti and other Federal Trunk Roads of Nigeria results in more and more construction of new roads and modernization of old ones. Therefore, this requires further studies on how road pavement types are selected.
Road Authorities could make more informed and better investment decisions, because pavement type has a significant impact on future cost and service quality. Traffic growth, especially in heavy axle traffic, can cause damage to pavements much quicker than expected, in turn causing more maintenance and thereby increasing agencies and users costs.
Pavement type choice is usually based on traffic level, soil conditions, atmospheric factors and costs. In many cases, the initial construction cost is the main consideration; the future maintenance and rehabilitation costs may sometimes be forgotten.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a process that compares the long-term economic worth of competing alternatives and the results could be useful as a decision-supporting tool.
According to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, life cycle costs “refer to all costs which are involved in the provision of a pavement during its complete life cycle”. That means that all pavement options are evaluated by taking into account different agencies and users costs.
Agencies costs include initial construction costs as well as future costs of rehabilitation, maintenance and facility operation. User costs are a result of many different issues, for instance increased delay costs, increased vehicle operating costs or charges in accident costs due to future maintenance actions [4].
All types of asphalt binding materials used in our country are imported with hard currency and its cost is becoming increasingly high from time to time. On the other hand cement materials have high potential of production in Nigeria and it is hoped that the price will decrease. Asphalt pavement requires heavy maintenance activities starting from early stages of its service life, but
Cement Concrete as an Alternative Pavement Material Over Asphalt Concrete in Arterial Roads of Nigeria; Life Cycle Cost Comparison and Economic Analysis rigid pavements do have long design life time and not required as such maintenances in its early service life. Hence, this study will try to address the problem and show economic advantages of using locally available resource for sustainable pavement construction.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of the study is to identify the sustainable and economical pavement material in arterial roads of Nigeria by making life cycle cost comparisons and economic analysis of Cement Concrete with Asphalt Concrete pavement materials in selected representative arterial roads of the country.
1.3.2 Specific objective;
• To identify the initial cost for both concrete and bituminous pavements.
• To identify the required types of life time maintenances for both concrete and bituminous pavements.
• To identify the various costs related to various maintenances involved in concrete and bituminous pavements.
• To carry out economic evaluation of concrete and bituminous pavements on selected segments of roads in Nigeria for forty years and to determine which pavement type is more economical and sustainable.
• To draw conclusions and forward recommendations based on the findings of the study.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
The primary objectives of road construction project planning are to optimize quality, cost and time. In Nigeria, this construction industry and its management is at an infant stage, fulfilling these requirements is difficult and challenging. This research work therefore, focuses on one of the basic requirements i.e. cost. Hence, the scope of the study is restricted to the identification of Cement Concrete as an Alternative Pavement Material Over Asphalt Concrete in Arterial Roads of Nigeria ; Life Cycle Cost Comparison and Economic Analysis more economical pavement material over life cycle cost comparison and economic analysis using primary and secondary data.
The scope of the study is, therefore, limited to evaluation of two alternative pavement types based on life cycle cost and economic advantages for sustainable road construction projects. Environmental impact and societal benefits from this sustainable road construction projects will not be fully quantifiable in this study. Because of technological differences, calibration problems and data availability limitations in our country, the researcher couldn’t use models like HDM-4 for the evaluation of user costs and environmental impacts.
1.5 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH
Thesis Organization
The thesis is organized into five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1−this chapter begins with the discussion on background and general introduction to the research, statement of the problem, objectives, scope, methodology adopted to achieve the objectives of the study and organization of the thesis.
Chapter 2 is literature review from professional journals, research papers, manuals, books, internet searches and informal interview with road design, construction, and contract administration experts. This chapter essentially provides a review of the current state of the art in road construction project pavement type selection trends. Brief definition aspects of different pavement materials, their properties, design criteria, etc. is discussed within this chapter.
Chapter 3 is the research methodology followed in order to achieve the objectives of the study.
The results of the data obtained from the desk study on selected road construction projects and literature review is presented and discussed accordingly in Chapter 4.
Finally, in Chapter 5, conclusions and recommendations are forwarded based on the major findings of the study and discussed how the research objectives align with the findings.
1.6 RESEARCH METHODS MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES
The research work is started with problem identification, which is followed by literature review, formal and informal discussion with professionals in the federal road construction sectors.
The research has then proceeded through economic analysis and life cycle cost comparison of Cement Concrete Pavement material against Asphalt Concrete material in trunk type roads of Ethiopia. Literatures include magazines, books, journals, internet etc. In parallel with literature review, an in-depth desk study has been conducted to identify construction costs, maintenance costs, environmental impacts and road user benefits of each pavement material type. During the desk study, various documents such as design manuals of different countries, technical specifications, feasibility studies reports, Engineering design reports, correspondences, progress reports, completion reports, payment certificates, statements on final account, road asset management documents etc. has been critically evaluated. Whenever there is unclear primary data or ambiguity during the desk study, further explanation or information has been obtained through informal interviews with professionals involving in road construction projects especially pavement or material Engineers, in order to maximize the clarity and to gain adequate understanding of the data for its use in analysis.
The document search was intended to collect pavement design trends, values of initial/construction costs consumed and annual maintenance or rehabilitation costs allocated from some randomly selected upgrading and rehabilitation trunk type road construction projects which are completed/substantially completed.
Then analysis and discussion has been conducted based on the primary & secondary data obtained. Finally, conclusions have been drawn and recommendations forwarded based on the finding of the study and literature reviews. The study has been conducted on projects with high traffic volumes (50 million ESAL to 80 million ESAL) of Trunk type Federal Roads of Nigeria.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis provides a methodology for computing the cost of a product or service during its lifetime. It is used to compare competing design alternatives over the lives of each alternative, considering all significant costs and benefits, expressed in equivalent monetary units [5]. For infrastructure assets such as roads, a large proportion of the total cost over the lifetime of these assets is incurred after construction, i.e. during their service lives. It is possible to avoid most of the “unknown” costs by introducing long-term costs into the pavement valuation processes instead of comparing only initial material and construction costs [5].
Analysis period of 40 years has been determined based on the recommendation of AASHTO 1993 and in order to utilize the full design life of concrete pavement for proper comparison of the two pavement type alternatives.
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
In the area of road construction, proper planning of projects is vitally important to highway organizations (authorities) as their construction program outlines how highway funds are to be spent over time and to be sustainable in its serviceability for the comfort of road users, any deviation from the established program often brings a quick response from the public, the press, and politicians. When this occurs, the highway organization loses creditability. On the other hand, if a highway organization can produce realistic program estimates that it is able to attain, then the image of the agency is enhanced.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the Authorities to make an accurate project planning in the selection of economical pavement materials for the construction of sustainable roads for allocation of justifiable budgets. Thus beneficiaries of this research are;
- The implementing authorities (ERA and AACRA),
- consulting and construction firms plus practicing Engineers,
- Educational institutions, which use the information for academic purposes,
- Investors to focus on manufacturing of ready mix concrete for pavement works,
- Other researchers who will work in relation to pavement LCCA, etc
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A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MADE FROM VARIOUS AGGREGATE TYPES
ABSTRACT
In the sense that the materials involved in this project were capital intensive more especially cement, so in carrying out the work one must have to be careful in the selection and collection of materials to be used in the casting of the concrete.
The materials used are coarse aggregate (granite) fine aggregate (sand). The coarse aggregates used in this work were collected from ishiagu while the fine aggregate was collected in front of the carpentry’s workshop on the campus.
The test conform to the standard method test, the ratio used was 1:2:4 and the method adopted was batching by weight, from the mix ratio the relative weight for each material to be used for concrete cube cast was 36, these cubes were tested for compressive strength of 7, 14 and 28 days.
The results of tests involved in the work and that of compressive strength tests were calculated and tabulated as shown in the final tabulation of results.
With the above information, I now recommend and therefore conclude.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
- The project objectives
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Materials for concrete
- Aggregates introduction
- Fine Aggregate/Sand
- Coarse Aggregate/Granite
CHAPTER THREE
- Mixing of the concrete
CHAPTER FOUR
- Preparation for placing and compaction
CHAPTER FIVE
- Curing
CHAPTER SIX
- Testing of hardened concrete and tabulation of results
CHAPTER SEVEN
- Conclusions and recommendation
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USE OF CORRELATIONS AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS AS STATISTICAL TOOLS IN GREEN CONCRETE RESEARCH
Abstract:
This research explores the application of correlations and regression analysis as statistical tools in the investigation of green concrete. Green concrete, characterized by its eco-friendly composition and production methods, has gained prominence in sustainable construction practices. The study employs correlations to establish relationships between various parameters and regression analysis to model the influence of key factors on the properties of green concrete.
The research methodology involves the formulation of green concrete mixtures with different sustainable additives, such as supplementary cementitious materials, recycled aggregates, and chemical admixtures. Comprehensive testing is conducted to assess the mechanical, durability, and environmental performance of the green concrete. Correlation analysis is employed to identify interdependencies among different variables, while regression analysis is used to develop predictive models for key concrete properties.
The findings from correlations and regression analysis offer insights into the intricate relationships between sustainable additives and the resulting properties of green concrete. These statistical tools contribute to a nuanced understanding of how specific parameters influence the overall performance of green concrete mixes. The research aims to guide future developments in green concrete technology by providing a quantitative basis for optimizing mix designs and enhancing sustainability in the construction industry.
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background
Concrete, as a ubiquitous construction material, has undergone continuous innovation and development to meet the growing demands of sustainable and environmentally friendly construction practices. The advent of green concrete, incorporating alternative materials and sustainable production methods, marks a significant shift towards reducing the environmental impact of traditional concrete production. In the realm of green concrete research, statistical tools such as correlations and regression analysis play a crucial role in understanding the relationships between various factors influencing concrete properties.
Concrete is a versatile construction material that can be manufactured using locally available materials like crushed stone, river sand and water. It is very popular when the fact is considered that around the world approximately twice as much concrete is used in construction than the total of all other building materials, such as, steel, plastic, wood, and aluminium. Its compressive strength is an important aspect in deciding its load carrying capacity [1]. Concrete according to Worrell as cited by [2] is the second most consumed entity after water and accounts for 5% of the world’s total CO2 emission as a result of the production of cement as one of its major ingredient and hence a threat to the environment, prompting the search for other materials that are environmental-friendly (green concrete).
Green concrete is defined as a concrete which uses waste material as at least one of its components, or its production process does not lead to environmental destruction, or it has high performance and life cycle sustainability [3]. Green concrete has nothing to do with colour. It is a concept of thinking environment into concrete considering every aspect from raw materials manufactured over mixture design to structural design, construction, and service life [4]. Green concrete is very cheap to produce because waste products are often used to make them; also charges for the disposal of waste are avoided as an added benefit [5]. The emergence of green concrete has to a large extent curb the environmental problem arising from unscientific and indiscriminate disposal of municipal solid waste, which is a real menace for the whole society. These wastes are increasing day by day due to increase in population, urbanisation and industrialisation. The characterisation of municipal solid waste according to Sharholy as cited by [6] shows that it contains about 55–65% of compostable material, 25–35% of dry/recyclable materials and 15-20% of inert material.
Efforts have been made in recent decades to develop “green” concretes containing industrial waste [7]. It is well known that in such green concretes cement has been partially replaced by industrial and/or agricultural byproducts such as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, metakaolin, rice husk ash, etc., which are considered as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The replacement of cement by using SCMs not only decreases the landfills of waste materials and their associated environmental impacts, but also reduces the carbon footprint of concrete. In general, SCMs can be used to improve the mechanical properties of concrete, either in fresh or hardened mixtures [7].
According to [8], correlation measures the degree of linear association between two or more variables when a movement in one variable is associated with the movement in the other variable either in the same direction or the other direction. And regression analysis is the study of the nature and extent of association between two or more variables on the basis of the assumed relationship between them with a view to predict the value of one variable from the other. Correlation and Regression are two analyses that are based on multivariate distribution. Correlation is described as the analysis which lets us know the association or the absence of the relationship between two variables ‘x’ and ‘y’. On the other end, Regression analysis, predicts the value of the dependent variable based on the known value of the independent variable, assuming that average mathematical relationship between two or more variables exist [9]. People use regression on an intuitive level every day. In business, a welldressed man is thought to be financially successful. A mother knows that more sugar in her children’s diet results in higher energy levels. The ease of waking up in the morning often depends on how late you went to bed the night before. Quantitative regression adds precision by developing a mathematical formula that can be used for predictive purposes.
Correlation and regression as analytical tools use in statistics have been taught in so many institutions over the years especially in physical sciences and engineering fields; have been used in different works of life like industries and businesses; a lot of books and articles. have been written and published to make people understand correlation and regression analyses but have been seldomly applied in science and engineering academic research. This paper focuses on using linear correlation and linear and non-linear regression to analyse the results of the mechanical and durability properties of green concrete and to also show science and engineering researchers a possible way of applying these analytical tools in their future research in order to explain and predict the property been researched.
1.2 Rationale
The development and optimization of green concrete formulations involve a complex interplay of multiple variables, including the type and proportion of alternative materials, curing methods, and environmental conditions. Correlations and regression analysis provide quantitative insights into the dependencies and interactions among these variables, allowing researchers and practitioners to make informed decisions during the concrete mix design process. By applying statistical tools, researchers can identify key factors affecting the performance of green concrete and optimize its properties for specific applications.
1.3 Research Aim and Objectives
The primary aim of this research is to explore the use of correlations and regression analysis as statistical tools in green concrete research. The specific objectives include:
To examine the relationships between various components of green concrete mixtures.
To quantify the impact of alternative materials on specific concrete properties using statistical models.
To assess the predictive capabilities of regression analysis in estimating green concrete performance.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study holds significance in several dimensions:
Optimization of Green Concrete Formulations: Understanding correlations between different components allows for the optimization of green concrete mixtures, maximizing both sustainability and performance.
Data-Driven Decision Making: Statistical analysis provides a data-driven approach to decision-making in green concrete research, offering insights into the most influential factors.
Advancement of Sustainable Construction Practices: By utilizing statistical tools, this research contributes to the advancement of sustainable construction practices, supporting the broader goals of environmentally conscious infrastructure development.
1.5 Scope of the Study
The research focuses on the application of correlations and regression analysis specifically in the context of green concrete research. The scope encompasses the analysis of relationships between alternative materials (such as fly ash, slag, and recycled aggregates), curing methods, and various concrete properties, including compressive strength, durability, and workability.
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EFFECT OF PALM FIBRE ASH AS AN ADDICTIVE IN CONCRETE
ABSTRACT
The effect of palm fibers on the absorption and mechanical properties of hardened concrete is presented in this paper. To achieve this aim, four concrete mixes were prepared with varying amount of fibers. The volume of fiber in the mix is 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%. The water to cement ratio for all mixes is kept constant. Five tests were performed for each concrete mixtures: ultrasonic pulse velocity, compressive strength, density, sorptivity and total water absorption. Concrete were cured for 3, 7, 28 and 90 days. Results indicated that acceptable concrete quality can be achieved with the addition of palm fibers. On the other side, the inclusion of palm fibers reduces the compressive strength up to 30% on average and the density by 4% as the percentage of fibers increases from 0% to 1.5%. In addition, the capillary water absorption coefficient and total absorption increase with the increase of palm fibers but decreases significantly with curing durations.
.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is considered a major sector in many countries around the world, including Lebanon. Unfortunately, this industry shares responsibility in depleting large amount of non-renewable resources and for 30% of carbon dioxide emissions (1). Therefore, many local agencies are urging the construction industry to use renewable resources to attain a more sustainable consumption pattern of construction materials. This is now apparent from the research conducted in the last few decades where waste and recycled products were used in concrete production (254)
Concrete is widely considered the most used materials in construction. However, It has low tensile strength and low ductility. The concrete-steel reinforced bars combination is needed to overcome those disadvantages. However, steel which is derived from a nonrenewable source is an expensive material. It has high energy consumption and a tendency to corrode with time as concrete permeability increases during its life time. To compensate those shortcomings and for environment protection purposes, natural fibers have been proposed by materials engineers as a possible replacement for steel in construction works. A distinctive property of natural fibers concrete composite are improved bending and tensile strength, greater resistance to cracking and consequently, better strength and toughness (55). Researchers have tried in the past decade different types of natural fibers such as sisal, jute, rice husk, flax, bamboo, banana fiber, oil palm fiber and date palm fibers (56,57). Although few previous studies provided promising results, there are still concerns regarding natural fibers high variation properties which could possibly lead to unpredictable concrete properties such as durability and strength, etc. (58-61). A major problem in using natural fibers is that the fibers present in an alkaline environment will decompose over time. Thus, concrete matrix loses its strength, leading to a sudden brittle failure. For this reason, chemical treatment of natural fibers before introducing it to the mixture is necessary (62,63).
In this study, the focus is on the fan palm fibers (FPF) as it seems more suitable for exploitation. It was shown in a previous work that FPF in a 4% sodium hydroxide for 24 hours was the preferred treatment procedure as it yielded the highest tensile strength (59-63). In a subsequent study focusing on the effect of using FPF on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete, it was found that the compressive strength was not affected with the addition of low percentage of fibers. On the other hand, the resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking increased significantly with the addition of FPF and the optimum fiber percentage was found at 1.5% (61-63). A more recent experimental study investigated the effect of FPF on concrete durability exposed to severe environments (sea water and magnesium sulfate). Results confirmed the beneficial effect of FPF as it reduces length concrete variation between 18% and 42% yielding volume stability of the composite (60,61).
This paper is a continuation of a previous work on FPF with specific focus on its effect on the absorptions and mechanical properties of concrete. Results of this investigation are expected to pave the road for utilizing these natural materials in local construction to achieve a sustainable composite.
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REPLACEMENT OF SAND WITH QUARRY DUST IN CONCRETE PRODUCTION
Abstract:
The demand for sustainable construction practices has prompted research into alternative materials for concrete production, with a focus on reducing the environmental impact of traditional components. This study investigates the feasibility of replacing conventional river sand with quarry dust as a fine aggregate in concrete. Quarry dust, a byproduct of stone crushing operations, is abundant and poses environmental challenges when disposed of as waste. The research aims to assess the mechanical, durability, and workability properties of concrete mixes incorporating varying percentages of quarry dust.
The experimental program involves the preparation of concrete mixtures with replacement levels ranging from 0% to 100% of sand with quarry dust. Comprehensive testing is conducted, encompassing compressive strength, flexural strength, workability, and durability assessments. The results are analyzed to evaluate the impact of quarry dust on the performance of concrete, providing insights into its potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional sand.
The findings of this research contribute to the understanding of the mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete when quarry dust is utilized as a partial or complete replacement for sand. The study addresses environmental concerns associated with quarry dust disposal and explores its potential to enhance the sustainability of concrete production. The outcomes of this investigation may guide construction practices toward eco-friendly solutions, aligning with global efforts to promote environmentally conscious building materials.
Chapter One:
Introduction
1.1 Background
Concrete, as a fundamental construction material, has undergone continuous innovations to meet the evolving demands of the construction industry. One notable avenue of exploration is the incorporation of alternative materials in concrete production to enhance its sustainability and address environmental concerns. Quarry dust, a byproduct of the quarrying process, has emerged as a potential substitute for sand in concrete production. The utilization of quarry dust in concrete has gained attention due to its abundance, cost-effectiveness, and potential to mitigate the environmental impact associated with sand extraction.
1.2 Rationale
The rationale behind exploring the replacement of sand with quarry dust lies in the need for sustainable and eco-friendly construction practices. The extraction of natural sand from riverbeds and coastal areas has raised environmental concerns related to habitat disruption, erosion, and sedimentation. Quarry dust, being a byproduct of aggregate production, offers an alternative that not only addresses these environmental issues but also exhibits certain engineering properties that may positively influence concrete performance. This research aims to contribute to the understanding of how quarry dust can be effectively used as a partial or complete replacement for sand in concrete mixtures.
1.3 Research Aim and Objectives
The primary aim of this research is to investigate the feasibility and impact of replacing sand with quarry dust in concrete production. The specific objectives include:
To assess the effect of varying percentages of quarry dust as a replacement for sand on the mechanical properties of concrete.
To evaluate the durability and workability characteristics of concrete incorporating quarry dust.
To analyze the economic and environmental implications of using quarry dust in concrete production.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study holds significance in several dimensions:
Sustainable Construction Practices: The research contributes to the development of sustainable construction practices by exploring alternatives to traditional materials and reducing the environmental impact of concrete production.
Resource Optimization: Utilizing quarry dust as a replacement for sand addresses concerns related to the depletion of natural sand resources, promoting responsible resource management.
Engineering Performance: Understanding the impact of quarry dust on the mechanical, durability, and workability properties of concrete provides valuable insights for engineers, contractors, and researchers.
1.5 Scope of the Study
The scope of this research encompasses the investigation into the replacement of sand with quarry dust in concrete production. The study will consider various replacement percentages to assess their influence on the mechanical, durability, and workability properties of the resulting concrete mixes. Additionally, economic and environmental considerations related to the use of quarry dust will be explored.
1.6 Research Methodology
The research methodology involves a systematic approach, including:
Literature Review: A thorough review of existing literature on the use of quarry dust in concrete production, encompassing previous studies, findings, and practical applications.
Laboratory Experiments: Conducting experiments to prepare concrete mixtures with varying percentages of quarry dust, and evaluating their mechanical, durability, and workability properties.
Economic and Environmental Assessment: Analyzing the economic feasibility and environmental impact of utilizing quarry dust in concrete production.
Data Analysis: Employing statistical and engineering analysis to interpret experimental results and draw meaningful conclusions.
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AN INQUIRY INTO REINFORCEMENT OF ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURES USING SPONGE GOURD AND DWARF PALMETTO FIBRES
ABSTRACT
The crave for a sustainable green environment and yearning for lightweight structures in society today have prompted engineers to seek more alternative materials to reduce the negative sides of concrete structures. Often time, composite materials or fibers are incorporated into the concrete matrix to give better performance. In this regard, the fiber enhances the concrete aggregates against stresses. This study assessed the performance of Luffa aegyptiaca (sponge gourd), a natural fiber as a polymer reinforcement in concrete for better operation. Different layering arrangements were adopted (lamina, mesh, longitudinal, and disperse) to get the best fit. The
compressive strength test, as well as the flexural strength test, among other tests carried out, indicated that laying the fiber longitudinally in the concrete matrix can give better performance in strength. The average compressive and flexural strength of 25.8 MPa and 10.2 MPa respectively are recorded for the longitudinal arrangement, which stands as the highest strength. The fiber can work well in improving concrete spalling. An extended study on the mechanical properties of the Luffa aegyptiaca to ascertain its performance is therefore recommended.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The development of science and technology has shaped a need to develop engineering materials with lightweight, high strength with specific properties per service requirement at low cost and minimum energy consumption. Many composites used today are at the leading edge of materials technology; their use has been extended to advanced applications such as aircraft and aerospace structures. The idea of composite materials, however, has been existing for thousands of years. In early civilization, natural polymers were mixed with inorganic materials to achieve high strength composite materials used for construction. The Ancient Egyptians used the chopped straw to reinforce with mud bricks, Mongol warriors used a composite consisting of Bullock tendon, horn, bamboo strips, silk, and pine resin to produce Highperformance archery bows. Albumen, rice, and blood were used to produce mortal, and glutinous paste from the rice was adopted for the great wall of China [1-3]. Since the early 1960s, there has been an increase in the demand for stronger, stiffer, and more lightweight materials for use in the aerospace, transportation, and construction industries. High-performance demands on engineering materials have led to the extensive research and development of new and better materials [4]. Composite materials used for structural purposes often have low densities, resulting in high stiffness to weight and high strength to weight ratios when compared to the traditional engineering materials. Besides, the high fatigue strength to weight ratio and fatigue damage tolerance of many composites also makes them an attractive option [5]. Concrete is one of the engineering materials widely adopted for building and constructing infrastructures such as bridges, buildings, silos, among others, owing to its ease handling to form different shapes and the low cost it offers. However, as a result of its nonlinear behavior, concrete possess some demerits such as (a) pore voids, which are the entrance point for liquids, gases, and chemically aggressive elements and saltwater which cause concrete deterioration; (b) its coarseness characteristic undermines its performance during high abrasion, which results in fatigue; (c) poor resistance to fire. An alternative remedy for such troubles is to incorporate polymer materials into the concrete. Polymer materials have mineral aggregates with good binding, durable, and elastic. The integration of synthetic fiber is appreciated to produce cheaper and flexible materials [6, 7]. In polymer concrete, there exist the resin that binds the inorganic aggregate rather than the water to cement binder used in the Portland cement concrete. The focus of the research is on the development of concrete with the embedment of Luffa aegyptiaca fibers in different arrangements and multiple layers for both compressive strength and flexural strength tests. It is a rapidly developing material with the attractive advantages of low density and cost compared to metals and other forms of fiber reinforcements. However, reinforcements are still needed to provide additional strength for concrete. The combination of these materials with properties different from the individual characteristics is produced. The constituent materials contained concrete and luffa fiber as reinforcement. The primary phase of composite materials is the concrete matrix phase, which is usually more ductile and less hard as well as holds the reinforcing phase normally stronger than the concrete matrix and transfer stresses between the reinforcements. Most of the natural Luffa aegyptiaca fibers found today around the tropics are lignocellulosic in nature. Luffa acutangular and Luffa aegyptiaca (Figure 1), are the two major species grown and harvested as vegetables in Asia and Africa. Luffa grows straight arrow, curved, and grows about 200 mm in length [8,9]. Luffa family has found several uses such as edibles present in the market [10], as bath sponges, filler materials for production of composites, materials of adsorption in water treatments, for discoloration of reagent, extraction of harmful chemical and biological compounds, in the cosmetics industries among others [11]. In the present scenario, natural fibers have excellent potential to reduce not only CO2 emissions but also save non-renewable resources by substituting artificial fiber reinforcements in composites.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Traditionally, glass fibers and wool have been extensively used as building insulation material and reinforcement in the auto sector thermoplastics. Natural fibers are being explored more extensively by research institutions and automobile companies as environmentally friendly. Most of the best fibers being studied are obtained from naturally growing plants of flax, kenaf, sisal, and hemp. Flax, sisal, and hemp are processed into door cladding, seatback linings, and floor panels. Coconut fiber is used to make seat bottoms, back cushions, and head restraints, while cotton is used to provide soundproofing, and wood fiber is used in seatback cushions [12].
composite matrix, workability, and constituency of the mix were better than the ordinary cement paste. Moreover, a limited deflection hardening behavior was observed. Luffa fiber has also been used to modify polystyrene matrix.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
- To understand the importance of reinforcement of asphalt concrete mixture with sponge gourd
- To understand the importance of reinforcement of asphalt concrete mixture with dwarf palmetto fibres
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- What is the importance of reinforcement of asphalt concrete mixture with sponge gourd
- What is the importance of reinforcement of asphalt concrete mixture with dwarf palmetto fibres
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This information from this research will provide better source of reference for future researchers
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STUDY OF EFFECT OF WATER ON ASPHALT ROAD PAVEMENTS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Water can be one of the most damaging elements to asphalt pavement because it has a lot of adverse effects on pavement performance. Moisture damage decreases strength and durability of asphalt mixtures due to the presence of water. This usually occurs when the bond between the asphalt cement and the fine coarse aggregate is lost. As moisture penetrates this weakness, the damages and pavement deterioration speeds up.
Some moisture damages and distresses that can occur in asphalt pavement are:
Cracking
Stripping – debonding of aggregate and binder
Rutting – surface depression alone wheel path
Bleeding – formation of asphalt binder film on pavement
Failures – loss of adhesive between layers and cohesion in aggregate and binder
When cracks form in asphalt, it allows for water to seep under the surface, which is damaging to the base beneath. Each time it rains and this happens, the weakness, damages, and pavement deterioration rate increases. This damage is often not visible from above, but the damages being caused are serious and can be costly to fix. If your leave your pavement vulnerable to water penetration for too long, potholes and other large structural deterioration can occur.
crack filling helps reduce pavement deterioration The best way to protect your pavement from water damage is to practice regular maintenance like:
Cracking filling
Pavement repairs
Asphalt patching
Sealcoating
At the present time as the U.S. continues to experience climate change, these regular maintenance are particularly important. Climate change increases our risk of experiencing both heavy rains, and extreme droughts. If the cracks and flaws in your pavement are left unkept, the mass amount of water from these large storms can do serious damage to your pavement’s base layer and overall structure.
Additionally, these heavy downpours can lead to flooding, which means more opportunities for outstanding water to lay on your pavement for long periods of time. Even if your pavement is well maintained, this sort of flooding can be damaging to your asphalt, especially if not properly installed.
Things to consider when installing pavement (and reasons to hire a professional):
Mix design – the mix design should be capable of handling environmental conditions, which includes exposure to water. Materials used to produce the mix and the gradation should be appropriate for the situation.
Aggregate – Can affect the vulnerability of the pavement to moisture. The size and extent of the pores may cause water absorption. The chemical composition of the aggregate also has an effect on whether it is likely to bond to water or not.
Gradation – This has a significant impact on the pavement dealing with water. A dense-grade mix should be pretty impermeable to water if proper compaction occurs. Whereas, an open-grade mix is permeable to water. In cases with an application of open-grade mix, proper drainage is extremely important.
Additives – The impact of additives in an asphalt mix depends on the combination of ingredients used in the mix.
Structure – A pavement’s structural design should be capable of dealing with moisture properly. This can depend on the correct density, slope, drainage, bases layers, etc.
1.2 Statement of the problem
When hiring a professional paving company, they have extensive training to understand the proper techniques, materials, and calculations for your particular project to ensure optimal water permeation protection. If the pavement install and structure application is incorrect (the base layer), the pavement’s lifespan will be significantly lower than it should be, causing premature pavement deterioration.
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the impact of water on asphalt road pavements
2. To understand the relationship between water and asphalt pavements
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the impact of water on asphalt road pavements
2. What is the relationship between water and asphalt pavements
1.5 Research Hypothesis
H0: There is no relationship between water and asphalt pavements
H1: There is a relationship between water and asphalt pavements
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COMPARING THE STRENGTH OF BLOCK MADE FROM (I) CEMENT AND LATERITIC SOIL (II) CEMENT AND RED EARTH (III) LATERITE, SAND AND RED EARTH
Abstract:
This research aims to compare the strength characteristics of three distinct types of blocks produced from different soil-based compositions. The investigated blocks include those made from (I) Cement and Lateritic Soil, (II) Cement and Red Earth, and (III) a mixture of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth. Compressive strength testing will be employed to evaluate the structural performance of each block type. The study seeks to provide valuable insights into the suitability and structural viability of alternative soil-based materials for block production. The findings contribute to sustainable construction practices by exploring locally available resources as potential alternatives to conventional building materials.
Chapter One:
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
In the construction industry, the choice of building materials plays a pivotal role in determining the structural integrity, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of structures. Traditional materials, such as cement and sand, are commonly used for producing blocks, yet their availability and environmental impact necessitate exploration of alternative materials. This research focuses on assessing the strength characteristics of blocks made from different soil-based compositions: (I) Cement and Lateritic Soil, (II) Cement and Red Earth, and (III) a combination of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth. Understanding the structural performance of these blocks is crucial for promoting sustainable construction practices and utilizing locally available resources.
The construction industry faces evolving challenges in the pursuit of sustainable and cost-effective building practices. Traditional materials like cement and sand, while widely used, pose environmental concerns and are often associated with high production costs. In response to these challenges, there is a growing interest in exploring alternative materials, especially those sourced from locally available soils. This research focuses on comparing the strength characteristics of blocks produced from three distinct soil-based compositions: (I) Cement and Lateritic Soil, (II) Cement and Red Earth, and (III) a combination of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth.
Cement and sand have long been the cornerstone of block production in the construction industry. However, the environmental impact of cement production, coupled with fluctuating material costs, has prompted researchers and builders to seek viable alternatives. The abundance of lateritic soil and red earth in many regions offers an opportunity to explore these locally available resources for sustainable construction.
Understanding the structural properties of blocks made from alternative soil-based compositions is crucial for determining their feasibility and applicability in construction. This research aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on sustainable building practices by providing insights into the compressive strength of blocks produced from (I) Cement and Lateritic Soil, (II) Cement and Red Earth, and (III) a combination of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The construction industry’s heavy reliance on conventional building materials, particularly cement and sand, poses environmental and economic challenges. Exploring alternative materials derived from locally available soils, such as lateritic soil and red earth, offers potential solutions. However, the structural performance and strength characteristics of blocks made from these alternative soil-based compositions need thorough examination. This study aims to address this gap by comparing the strength of blocks produced from (I) Cement and Lateritic Soil, (II) Cement and Red Earth, and (III) a mixture of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objectives of this research are:
To compare the compressive strength of blocks produced from Cement and Lateritic Soil.
To assess the compressive strength of blocks produced from Cement and Red Earth.
To evaluate the compressive strength of blocks produced from a mixture of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth.
To analyze and compare the structural characteristics of the three different types of blocks.
1.4 Research Questions
The study will address the following research questions:
How does the compressive strength of blocks made from Cement and Lateritic Soil compare to conventional blocks made from cement and sand?
What is the compressive strength of blocks produced from Cement and Red Earth compared to conventional blocks?
How does the compressive strength of blocks made from a mixture of Laterite, Sand, and Red Earth compare to blocks produced using traditional materials?
What are the structural characteristics and implications of utilizing different soil-based compositions in block production?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research holds significance in several aspects:
Sustainable Construction: The study contributes to sustainable construction practices by exploring alternative materials, potentially reducing reliance on conventional resources.
Local Resource Utilization: Understanding the structural performance of blocks made from local soils can lead to efficient utilization of locally available resources.
Cost-Effectiveness: The findings may contribute to identifying cost-effective alternatives for block production, benefiting builders and communities.
Environmental Impact: Utilizing alternative soil compositions may have a reduced environmental impact compared to conventional materials, contributing to eco-friendly construction practices.
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A STUDY OF CASTING AND INSTALLATION OF CONCRETE ROUTE MAKERS ALONG WATERLINE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the entire world. Rather than existing as an independent material, concrete is a mix of various materials. These materials include cement, water, fine aggregate, and crushed stones or gravel. Sand and gravel or crushed stones are examples of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, respectively.
Why is Concrete So Important?
The many cement contractors Delaware folks look to for all their construction needs have one thing in common, they all use concrete. This prevalent use of concrete begs the question, why is concrete such an essential material for construction?
Well, concrete is similar to mortars in both composition and structure. This similarity means concrete works as a binder for the various masonry units in construction, just like any mortar. Unlike ordinary mortar, however, concrete has a wide range of applications. This versatility is as a result of concrete having both fine aggregates and coarse aggregates that are larger. The large size of the coarse aggregates confers strength attributes to concrete, that mortar doesn’t have. This makes it suitable for application in larger and heavier structures. Most mortars have sand as the sole aggregate and are hence weaker than concrete.
Properties of Concrete That Make It Great for Construction
Concrete companies advertise the advantageous properties of concrete for good reasons. Concrete has many incredibly attributes that make it excellent for buildings and structures. Some of these properties include:
1. Strength
Concrete is a very strong material that can withstand great tensile and compressive stresses without yielding. This strength is, of course, a function of the material components of the concrete mix. This variability explains why poorly graded concrete is weaker than a well-graded mix. The strength of concrete makes it suitable for constructing foundations, wastewater treatment facilities, super structures, and other establishments.
2. Workability
Workability underscores the ease of use of a particular material or equipment and how it retains quality during use. Concrete companies have an easy time mixing concrete for starters. The subsequent handling, transportation, placing, and finishing process is also as seamless as the mixing. For such ease of use, concrete is an extremely workable material that is great even for large construction projects.
3. Durability
Concrete lasts for ages, even under very adverse conditions. Concrete can resist weathering action, chemical action, abrasion, and both tensile and compressive stress for long periods without compromising its structural integrity. This attribute makes a concrete structure more stable and suitable for places with rough conditions.
4. Long-Lasting
Concrete can last for well over a thousand years. In fact, the first instances of human-made concrete date back to 500 BC. The fact that we are still able to see this concrete shows just how durable concrete is. Commercial concrete work require little maintenance save from a few touch-ups on the finishing. The longevity of concrete makes it a great material for permanent buildings and other structures like bridges and even dams.
5. Economical
The many cement contractors Delaware or concrete contractors across the state love concrete because it’s cheap and does a great job in building works. Concrete is also very versatile and can be used for a variety of structures including buildings, pavements, pathways, and even bridges, to name a few.
- Statement of the problem
There may have been previous researches in this subject. This work gives further explanations and analysis in casting and installation of concrete route makers along waterline
- Objectives of the study
1.To understand the importance of casing and installation of concrete route makers along waterline
- To understand the relationship between casting and installation of concrete route makers and their productive usage.
1.4Research questions
1.What the importance of casing and installation of concrete route makers along waterline
2.What is the relationship between casting and installation of concrete route makers and their productive usage.
- Research hypothesis
H0: There is no relationship between casting and installation of concrete route makers and their productive usage.
H1: There is a relationship between casting and installation of concrete route makers and their productive usage.
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A STUDY OF NUMERICAL MODELLING OF FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
With recent developments in structural and material mechanics, assessments of safety margin with respect to non-linear system response and failure, instead of admissible stresses, became possible and even required by several codes . Numerical methods for the accurate simulation of the non-linear behavior of engineering structures have also been developed in last few decades and incorporated into computational tools. This evolution has significantly increased the need for knowledge about the inelastic properties of materials (e.g., plasticity, damage, creep, fracture, etc.) which cannot be assessed, unlike the elastic parameters, by means of non-destructive tests such as those based on ultrasound tests. Furthermore, the assessment of inelastic properties when combined phenomena take place (e.g., plasticity with damage and fracture) is rather difficult, or even impossible, using standardized tests for the evaluation of compressive or tensile strength as a single material property.
Accurate numerical modeling within the non-linear regime is related to the appropriate selection of a constitutive model, capable of accounting for phenomena that are taking place at the material level (e.g., plastic deformation, damage of the material, creep, etc.). Such a constitutive model would offer a framework for the accurate modeling of a structural response in the general context, beyond the one represented by the experiment performed for its calibration. Therefore, the quantification of the parameters that govern the constitutive equations should not be merely reduced to the fitting of a single experimental response.
The importance of appropriate constitutive model selection becomes more evident when a complex material, such as fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC), should be modeled. Owing to the presence of small fibers, the structural response of FRC with respect to conventional reinforced concrete is considerably different. With conventional reinforcement, significant elongation of the steel bar is required, so that it can carry tensile loads, which requires the notable opening of macro cracks within the concrete. In contrast, in FRC the cracks are often barely visible to the naked eye, and are developed in the form of a network, which gives the structural member greater ductility and, at the same time, limits the exposure of fibers to the ambient conditions .
In previous years, considerable research efforts have been devoted to studying the mechanical response of FRC. Significant attention has been devoted to analyzing the influence of fiber orientation on the mechanical response of structures. Since it is recognized that fiber distribution and orientation play an important role in global mechanical properties, several authors have discussed the influence of the casting process on the orientation of fibers, analyzed various methods to measure it, and tried to predict it through flow simulations. There have also been many experimental studies focused on the quantification of the global mechanical properties of structural components made of FRC. However, for the systematic incorporation of this material into structural analysis, a proper constitutive description and related parameter calibration is required.
The mechanical response of the structural components made of FRC depends, to a large extent, on the local distribution and orientation of reinforcing fibers. Such information can be collected through the use of X-ray computer tomography (CT), but its effective incorporation into numerical modeling still needs to be solved. The major difficulty for successful modeling is related to the fact that the existing orthotropic constitutive damage models, which are implemented in commercial finite element codes, are suitable for defining anisotropic material behavior only at the structural level. While this can be an appropriate strategy to model conventional reinforced concrete, it is not appropriate for the FRC, where locally strengthened directions, achieved by reinforcing fibers, vary considerably within different regions of individual structural components.
For reliable numerical simulations, fiber distribution and orientation should be included within the constitutive description, thus requiring multi-scale approaches with the capability of incorporating the inherent variability of the internal structure. For this purpose, discrete models, can be used, with further modifications, to take into account fiber distribution and orientations. These discrete models are capable of addressing material behavior at the micro and meso-scales. For the macro-scale, however, which is of importance for the analysis of large-scale structures, it is desirable to have a continuum phenomenological model. Such models are based on a representative volume element (RVE), treated as a continuum, without the necessity to model smaller constituents (e.g., fibers or grains). The presence of these individual constituents is, instead, taken into account through homogenized, macro-scale mechanical characteristics. These models, necessarily, involve certain assumptions that could limit their applicability. The feasibility of the numerical implementation, however, is significantly improved, since the problem is solved on a single scale. This approach is adopted in the present study.
Considering the nature of the phenomena that take place on the fiber scale, a reasonable approach would be to employ a damage model. The major difficulty related to the employment of existing constitutive damage models within commercial finite element modeling (FEM) codes is that even though they can simulate either isotropic or orthotropic behavior, the orthotropic behavior can only be modeled along the directions defined at the structural level. This can be an appropriate strategy to model conventional reinforced concrete, where reinforcing bars have well established directions with respect to the structure, but is not sufficient for FRC, where locally strengthened directions change from one point to another.
Fibre reinforcement concrete ranks among the category of fibre-concrete composites. Fibre reinforcement concretes may vary by concrete and especially by fibres used, i.e. by shape, length, diameter, and finishing. For building structures such as floors, foundation structures, tunnel linings or underground structures, the use of fibre concrete is often more beneficial that of the ordinary reinforced concrete or plain concrete. Concrete reinforcement by fibres increases the tensile strength and ductility of concrete, which is very small as compared with plain concrete. Other benefits of fibre concrete may include limitation of shrinkage cracks and deformations of concrete, increased ductility and fatigue strength, improved consistency (no falling-off at marginal parts of concrete). For the design of structures from fibre concrete, it is important to know in details its properties, which are most frequently defined in laboratories on testing samples. Fibre concrete itself and its testing are dealt with in the Czech Republic and globally on a long time basis. Research results can be found in many suggestions and national standards, norms, and technical conditions..
Every mechanical system submitted to static, dynamic, or thermal loads presents a response. However, complex analyses must be performed to obtain the mechanical response because the mechanical system is composed of several structural elements that evidence different mechanical behaviors. Some studies have reported the use of different constitutive models for analysis of mechanical concrete systems.
In the context of numerical theories used in computational mechanics, Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) deserves a mention, because it shows reliable numerical responses for mechanical systems composed of complex materials like concrete. An important work was developed by La Borderie, who proposed a homogenization rule with a damage model for fiber-reinforced concrete in order to obtain the updated stress in the composite matrix.
On the other hand, Li and Li studied concrete damage models applied to the analysis of tensioned fibers. In their work, the concrete was treated as a medium that shows hardening behavior for increasing strain. The results are satisfactory when compared to experimental ones. The same observation is valid for the work developed by Lee and Liang, who applied CDM to fiber-reinforced cellular concrete.
Moreover, Hameed et al. used damage mechanics to model steel-fiber-reinforced concrete beams, obtaining satisfactory results when compared to experimental tests. Pasa also evaluated the mechanical behavior of steel-fiber-reinforced concrete using the finite element method with smeared crack models.
According to Guello, the nonlinear behavior of the concrete, which takes place even at low stress levels, is influenced by nucleation and propagation of microcracks during the loading process. Thus, the importance of a reliable cracking model can be seen. However, in the context of improved materials for structural application, nowadays, steel-fiber-reinforced concrete is largely used, which reduces the tensile brittle behavior of concrete, leading to a better strain capacity due to the clipping effect of the cracks provided by fibers.
The effect of the addition of steel fibers on the flexural strength of concrete and mortar is more evident with regard to the tensile behavior than the compression strength. This paper intends to present a proposal for modeling the mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete using the damage model proposed by Pituba and Fernandes, which has already been tested in conventional concrete structures. The one-dimensional version of this proposed modeling is presented and applied to the analysis of fiber-reinforced concrete beams in order to mark out a discussion about the viability and employment restrictions in simplified numerical analyses in the context of structural engineering.
1.2 Problem statement
Experimental and numerical investigations have shown that the inclusion of steel fibres in concrete, when adopted in adequate quantities, can improve the shear resistance of beams by increasing the post cracking strength of the concrete. Fibres embedded within concrete delay the propagation and growth of cracks by improving the effectiveness of the crack-arresting mechanisms present when beams are subjected to high shear stresses.
Many studies have considered the possibility of utilizing SFRC by assigning a proportion of the shear resisting capacity of beams to the fibres. This has been realized by ACI-318 (2008), and more recently by the fib Model Code 2010 (2012) and the Draft Australian Bridge Code: Concrete (2014). Some inconsistencies in some of these approaches, however, have been identified (Foster, 2010; Amin & Foster, 2014).
The role played by fibers is most obvious after matrix cracking has occurred, as fibers offer resistance to crack propagation. As described by Voo and Fos- ter (2003) , for plain concrete, after matrix cracking, the tensile stress immediately decreases. However, after the addition of a cer- tain volume of steel fibers and after matrix cracking, the fibers are able to maintain a certain load bearing capacity, avoiding an abrupt failure of the composite. In addition, the crack widths are less than those of plain concrete ( Deluce, 2011 ). Therefore, the main benefits of the addition of steel fibers in cementitious matrices are directly related to their ability to transfer stresses across cracks.
According to Bentur and Mindess (2007) this process of stress transfer depends on the internal structure of the composite and
the main factors that influence the composite’s behavior are (i) the structure of the bulk cementitious matrix, (ii) the shape and distri- bution of the fibers and (iii) the fiber-matrix interaction.
Although the application of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) has increased in the last years, being very attractive in many structures, such as tunnel linings, bridges, pavements, and pipes, there remains a lack of numerical models for simulating its behavior that consider the contribution of each component (fibers, matrix and fiber-matrix interaction) in a fully independent way.
Several approaches have also been proposed for modeling the behavior of SFRC. Continuum models for SFRC have been devel- oped using results of structural members tested in laboratories, such as 3- and 4-point bending beams and slabs ( S.K. and Ra- maswamy, 2002 ).
In some of these models, stress-strain relations are developed from the inverse analysis of the laboratory test re- sults. These models are very limited because they are only able to reproduce the same conditions applied in the laboratory tests for specific structural members. Moreover, this type of model is highly expensive due to the large number of tests required to calibrate the model.
1.3 Fibre concrete
For the experimental program, fibres Dramix OL13/20 [16] have been selected. General characteristics of these fibres are shown in table 1 and the fibres shape is shown in figure 1. The initial concrete matrix has a formula stated in table 2. Samples were prepared in the laboratory.
Table 1. General characteristics of fibres Dramix® OL13/20 [20].
| General characteristic | Dramix® OL 13/20 (figure 4) |
| Length [mm] | 13 |
| Diameter [mm] | 0.21 |
| Tensile strength [N/mm2] | 2750 |
| Impact on concrete strength [kg/m3] | 60 |
| Modulus of elasticity [GPa] | 200 |
The concrete mixture used for tested samples may be classified in the category of ordinary concrete of class C25/30.
Figure 1. Dramix® OL13/20 [20].
Table 2. General characteristics of concrete mixture.
| Specification | Formula [kg/m3] |
| Cement | CEM II/A-S 42.5 |
| Min. cement content | 320 kg |
| Water-cement ration: w/c | 0.625 |
| Aggregate 0/2 DTK Mankovice | 525 kg |
| Aggregate 0/4 DTK Mankovice | 420 kg |
| Aggregate 4/8 Tovačov | 150 kg |
| Aggregate 8/16 HDK | 820 kg |
| Water | 200 l |
| Plasticizer STACHEPLAST | 3.2 L |
1.4 Smeared crack models
Since it has begun to be used in reinforced concrete structures, the Finite Element Method has shown more advantages by representing the cracks through changes of the constitutive equations (smeared models) instead of changes on the finite element mesh (discrete models). The first analyses were based on the idea of fragile failure, that is, to make the material stiffness null in the direction of the maximum tensile stress when it exceeded the tensile strength.
Later on, it was observed that better results in the post-peak phase could be achieved by adopting a gradual reduction in the stress. In order to represent this behavior, the stress-strain diagram started to be defined by experimental values and, thus, several models were proposed (Cedolin e Dei Poli [1], Bazant and Gambarova [2], Gupta and Maestrini [3], and Vecchio [4]).
Though successfully used to represent the behavior of the reinforced concrete structures which presented a crack pattern well distributed, when used to simulate the behavior of structures in which a crack is predominant (plain concrete or deep beams), these sensitivity regarding the mesh, caused by the non-consideration of concepts associated to Fracture Mechanics. So, it was necessary to apply the Fracture Mechanics concepts directly over the concrete structures analysis, creating a series of new models (Bazant and Cedolin [5], Bazant and Oh [6], Feestra and de Borst [7]). Rots and Blaauwendraad [8] presented a comparative study between the discrete and smeared crack models. This study introduced the idea of dividing the smeared crack models into fixed and rotating. In the fixed model, the crack orientation is kept constant during the whole computational process, while in the rotating model the crack orientation may change, following the main directions. There is also an intermediary option which is the concept of multidirectional fixed smeared crack.
There are also the models based on the plasticity theory, which are able to represent well the pre-peak and post-peak phases, consisting of a constitutive model and a failure criterion. In this line it can be pointed out the models by Ottosen [9] and Pramono and Willam [10].
1.5 Application of additional Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) layers
A novel technique used to improve the performance of existing structural elements is the application of additional Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) layers or jackets in connection to the existing elements. The efficiency of this technique has not been adequately studied, and there are not any published studies on the evaluation of this method with comparisons to other traditional strengthening methods such as the use of Reinforced Concrete (RC) layers and jackets.
The technique of strengthening using additional RC layers and jackets is one of the most commonly used techniques in seismic areas. There are several published experimental and theoretical studies on beams and columns strengthened with conventional concrete. A crucial parameter in this technique, which can considerably affect the durability and the performance of the strengthened structures, is the concrete shrinkage strain of the additional layers/jackets. Additional stresses are induced in strengthened elements, and cracking of the new layer and/or de-bonding may occur. The use of UHPFRC could potentially improve both durability and resistance due to its superior mechanical properties.
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