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HEALTH, EDUCATION AND LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN NIGERIA
Abstract
This study investigates the relationship between health, education, and labor productivity in Nigeria, highlighting the critical roles these factors play in economic growth and development. Using a mixed-method approach, the research explores how access to quality healthcare and education impacts workforce efficiency and output. Data were collected from national labor statistics, health sector reports, and educational performance indices to assess their combined influence on labor productivity.
The findings reveal that improved health outcomes significantly reduce absenteeism and increase the physical and mental capacity of workers, thereby enhancing productivity. Similarly, higher educational attainment equips workers with the skills and knowledge necessary to perform complex tasks, adapt to technological changes, and contribute more effectively to organizational goals. However, the study identifies challenges such as inadequate investment in healthcare and education infrastructure, regional disparities, and policy inefficiencies that hinder optimal labor productivity.
The study concludes that a holistic approach integrating health and education policies is essential for fostering a robust and productive workforce in Nigeria. Recommendations include increased budgetary allocation to the health and education sectors, improved access to quality services in rural areas, and targeted capacity-building programs to enhance workforce skills. These
measures are expected to drive sustainable economic growth and improve living standards in the country
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Health, education, and labour productivity are fundamental pillars of socio-economic development. The interplay among these factors significantly impacts a nation’s economic performance and the well-being of its citizens. In Nigeria, a developing economy with a population exceeding 200 million, understanding the relationship between health, education, and labour productivity is crucial for formulating effective policies.
Health is a critical determinant of labour productivity, as a healthy workforce is more energetic, efficient, and less prone to absenteeism. Studies have shown that better health outcomes lead to increased productivity by reducing the burden of disease and enhancing physical and mental capabilities (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). However, Nigeria faces significant health challenges, including high rates of communicable diseases, maternal mortality, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022).
Education plays an equally vital role in fostering labour productivity. An educated workforce tends to possess better skills, knowledge, and adaptability, which are essential for improving productivity and innovation in a competitive global economy (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018). In Nigeria, despite substantial investments in education, challenges such as low literacy rates, inadequate funding, and poor infrastructure persist, limiting the country’s ability to harness its human capital effectively (UNESCO, 2020).
Labour productivity, a measure of economic output per unit of labour input, is directly influenced by the health and education levels of the workforce. Nigeria’s labour productivity growth has been inconsistent, hindered by structural inefficiencies, underemployment, and inadequate investments in human capital development (Central Bank of Nigeria [CBN], 2021). Understanding the dynamic relationship among health, education, and labour productivity is imperative for addressing these challenges and achieving sustainable economic growth.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite Nigeria’s abundant natural and human resources, its economic growth has not translated into significant improvements in labour productivity. Poor health indicators, such as high disease prevalence and low life expectancy, continue to impede workforce efficiency (WHO, 2021). Similarly, the education sector grapples with low enrolment rates, teacher shortages, and declining quality of education, further exacerbating the challenges of low labour productivity (NBS, 2022).
The problem is further compounded by the weak linkage between government policies and the practical needs of the health and education sectors. While various initiatives have been implemented to improve these sectors, their impact on labour productivity remains suboptimal. This raises critical questions: How do health and education influence labour productivity in Nigeria? What are the key barriers preventing their effective contribution? Addressing these issues is essential for unlocking Nigeria’s economic potential.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objective of this study is to examine the relationship among health, education, and labour productivity in Nigeria. The specific objectives include:
To assess the impact of health on labour productivity in Nigeria.
To evaluate the influence of education on labour productivity in Nigeria.
To identify the challenges hindering the effective contribution of health and education to labour productivity.
To propose policy recommendations for enhancing the role of health and education in boosting labour productivity.
1.4 Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
How does health affect labour productivity in Nigeria?
What is the influence of education on labour productivity in Nigeria?
What challenges limit the impact of health and education on labour productivity?
What policies can be implemented to improve health and education outcomes for enhanced labour productivity?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant for several reasons. First, it provides empirical insights into the interrelationship among health, education, and labour productivity, offering a basis for evidence-based policymaking. Second, the findings can guide stakeholders in prioritizing investments in health and education to foster economic growth. Third, the study contributes to the academic discourse on human capital development, particularly in the context of developing economies like Nigeria.
Policymakers, educators, healthcare providers, and researchers can leverage the findings to design and implement strategies that address the root causes of low labour productivity. Ultimately, improving health and education outcomes will not only enhance labour productivity but also improve the overall quality of life for Nigerians.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on the relationship among health, education, and labour productivity in Nigeria. It examines data from relevant sectors and explores how health and education influence workforce efficiency. The study covers the period from 2010 to 2023, providing a comprehensive analysis of trends and patterns during this timeframe.
1.7 Definition of Key Terms
Health: A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease (WHO, 2021).
Education: The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes for personal and societal development (UNESCO, 2020).
Labour Productivity: The amount of economic output produced per unit of labour input, often measured as GDP per worker or per hour worked (CBN, 2021).
1.8 Organization of the Study
The study is structured into five chapters. Chapter One provides the introduction, including the background, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, and definitions of key terms. Chapter Two reviews relevant literature on health, education, and labour productivity. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology. Chapter Four presents and analyzes the findings, while Chapter Five discusses the conclusions, implications, and recommendations.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING HEALTH SEEKING BEHAVIOUR OF PREGNANT WOMEN IN SABO COMMUNITY OF SAGAMU
Chapter One:
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Maternal health is a critical component of public health, and the well-being of pregnant women directly impacts the health of both mothers and their infants. Access to quality healthcare during pregnancy is essential for ensuring a safe and healthy childbirth process. However, several factors can influence the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women, either facilitating or hindering their ability to access appropriate healthcare services.
In Sabo community of Sagamu, like many other similar settings, understanding the factors that influence the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women is crucial for designing effective interventions and improving maternal health outcomes. Sabo, being a diverse and dynamic community, presents a unique context for exploring these factors and devising strategies to enhance the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women.
Maternal health is a critical aspect of public health, with the well-being of pregnant women significantly influencing the health of both the mother and the child. In Nigeria, like many developing countries, maternal mortality remains a challenge, and the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women plays a pivotal role in addressing this issue. Sabo community, situated in Sagamu, Nigeria, represents a microcosm of the broader challenges faced by pregnant women in accessing adequate healthcare services.
The health-seeking behavior of pregnant women is influenced by a myriad of factors, ranging from socio-economic conditions and cultural beliefs to the availability and accessibility of healthcare facilities. Understanding these factors is essential for developing targeted interventions that can improve maternal health outcomes and reduce maternal mortality rates. In Sabo community, the dynamics of these factors may differ, necessitating a focused investigation to inform evidence-based strategies.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite the global efforts to improve maternal health, some communities, including Sabo in Sagamu, continue to face challenges related to the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women. Understanding these challenges is essential for developing targeted interventions and policies to address barriers and enhance access to maternal healthcare services.
The factors influencing health-seeking behavior among pregnant women in Sabo are multifaceted and may include socio-economic factors, cultural beliefs, accessibility to healthcare facilities, and the quality of available healthcare services. Identifying these factors is crucial for tailoring interventions that can effectively address the specific needs of pregnant women in Sabo and contribute to improved maternal health outcomes.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to explore and analyze the factors influencing the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women in Sabo community, Sagamu. By gaining insights into these factors, the study aims to inform the development of targeted interventions and strategies that can enhance maternal healthcare utilization in the community.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study include:
To identify the socio-economic factors influencing the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women in Sabo community.
To explore the cultural beliefs and practices that impact maternal healthcare utilization in the community.
To assess the accessibility and availability of healthcare facilities for pregnant women in Sabo.
To evaluate the perceived quality of maternal healthcare services in Sabo community.
1.5 Research Questions
To guide the study, the following research questions will be addressed:
What socio-economic factors influence the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women in Sabo community?
How do cultural beliefs and practices impact maternal healthcare utilization in Sabo?
What is the accessibility and availability of healthcare facilities for pregnant women in Sabo?
How do pregnant women perceive the quality of maternal healthcare services in Sabo?
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study is significant for several reasons. Firstly, it contributes to the existing body of knowledge on factors influencing maternal health-seeking behavior, particularly in the context of a diverse community like Sabo in Sagamu. Additionally, the findings of this study can inform policymakers, healthcare practitioners, and community leaders about specific areas that need attention to improve maternal health outcomes in Sabo. Lastly, the study can serve as a basis for future research and interventions aimed at enhancing maternal healthcare utilization in similar communities.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study will focus on pregnant women in Sabo community, Sagamu, as the primary participants. The research will cover various aspects, including socio-economic factors, cultural beliefs, accessibility to healthcare facilities, and perceived quality of healthcare services. The study will be limited to pregnant women aged 18 and above, residing in Sabo, Sagamu, and will exclude non-pregnant women, men, and individuals outside the specified age range.
1.8 Structure of the Thesis
The thesis will be organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an introduction to the study, outlining the background, statement of the problem, purpose, objectives, research questions, significance, and scope. Chapter Two will review relevant literature on maternal health, health-seeking behavior, and factors influencing maternal healthcare utilization. Chapter Three will describe the research methodology, including the study design, participants, data collection, and data analysis procedures. Chapter Four will present the findings of the study, and Chapter Five will discuss the implications of the findings, provide recommendations, and suggest areas for future research.
In summary, this chapter has introduced the research topic, highlighted its significance, and outlined the structure of the thesis. The subsequent chapters will delve deeper into the literature, methodology, findings, and conclusions related to factors influencing the health-seeking behavior of pregnant women in Sabo community, Sagamu.
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A REVIEW OF TRENDS OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICAL HEALTH EDUCATION
ABSTRACT
This work discusses trends of academic performance of junior secondary school students in physical health education. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among students and teachers from selected secondary schools in Nigeria. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that availability of teaching and learning facilities, teachers’ technical competence and learning environment have a strong and significant impact on students’ academic performance in physical health education.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
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PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION INTO THE ANTIMICROBIAL ANTI-MICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF PUMPKIN SEED OIL
ABSTRACT
The current research deals with the extraction, physicochemical and antimicrobial parameters of pumpkin seed oil (Cucurbita pepo) of arid zone variety of Nigeria. Pumpkin is a nutritive and unique plant commonly used as vegetable all around the world. Its seeds and rinds are mostly thrown away after use however; they are rich in proteins and fatty acids. In Nigeria usage of pumpkin is not as frequent as other vegetable and least importance is given to its seed. Therefore a present study is designed to see the physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of pumpkin seed oil (Cucurbita pepo). Results showed that the pumpkin seed oil had acid value 0.83667 (mg KOH/g oil), saponification value 194.606 (g of I2/100 g oil), peroxide value 6.74 (meq O2/kg oil), iodine value 97.9766 (g of I2/100 g oil) and ester value 193.7640 which are in range of the standard levels. Gass chromatography analysis showed the presence of five major free fatty acids linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and linolenic acid and among them linoleic and oleic are the major ones. The oil also showed good antimicrobial activity against S. aureus with zone of inhibition of 15 mm. Therefore, it is feasible to be used as edible oil and for other purposes.
KEYWORDS: Pumpkin, Pumpkin seed oil, Antimicrobial, Gas chromatography, Free fatty acids.
CHAPTER ONE
Pumpkin seeds have long been valued as a source of the mineral zinc, and the World Health Organization recommends their consumption as a good way of obtaining this nutrient. If you want to maximize the amount of zinc that you will be getting from your pumpkin seeds, we recommend that you consider purchasing them in unshelled form. Although recent studies have shown there to be little zinc in the shell itself (the shell is also called the seed coat or husk), there is a very thin layer directly beneath the shell called the endosperm envelope, and it is often pressed up very tightly against the shell. Zinc is especially concentrated in this endosperm envelope. Because it can be tricky to separate the endosperm envelope from the shell, eating the entire pumpkin seed—shell and all—will ensure that all of the zinc-containing portions of the seed will be consumed. Whole roasted, unshelled pumpkin seeds contain about 10 milligrams of zinc per 3.5 ounces, and shelled roasted pumpkin seeds (which are often referred to pumpkin seed kernels) contain about 7-8 milligrams. So even though the difference is not huge, and even though the seed kernels remain a good source of zinc, you’ll be able to increase your zinc intake if you consume the unshelled version.
While pumpkin seeds are not a highly rich source of vitamin E in the form of alpha-tocopherol, recent studies have shown that pumpkin seeds provide us with vitamin E in a wide diversity of forms. From any fixed amount of a vitamin, we are likely to get more health benefits when we are provided with that vitamin in all of its different forms. In the case of pumpkin seeds, vitamin E is found in all of the following forms: alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, delta-tocopherol, alpha-tocomonoenol, and gamma-tocomonoenol. These last two forms have only recently been discovered in pumpkin seeds, and their health benefits—including antioxidant benefits—are a topic of current interest in vitamin E research, since their bioavailability might be greater than some of the other vitamin E forms. The bottom line: pumpkin seeds’ vitamin E content may bring us more health benefits that we would ordinarily expect due to the diverse forms of vitamin E found in this food.
In our Tips for Preparing section, we recommend a roasting time for pumpkin seeds of no more than 15-20 minutes when roasting at home. This recommendation supported by a new study that pinpointed 20 minutes as a threshold time for changes in pumpkin seed fats. In this recent study, pumpkin seeds were roasted in a microwave oven for varying lengths of time, and limited changes in the pumpkin seeds fat were determined to occur under 20 minutes. However, when the seeds were roasted for longer than 20 minutes, a number of unwanted changes in fat structure were determined to occur more frequently.
Pumpkins, and their seeds, are native to the Americas, and indigenous species are found across North America, South America, and Central America. The word “pepita” is consistent with this heritage, since it comes from Mexico, where the Spanish phrase “pepita de calabaza” means “little seed of squash.”
Pumpkin seeds were a celebrated food among many Native American tribes, who treasured them both for their dietary and medicinal properties. In South America, the popularity of pumpkin seeds has been traced at least as far back as the Aztec cultures of 1300-1500 AD. From the Americas, the popularity of pumpkin seeds spread to the rest of the globe through trade and exploration over many centuries. In parts of Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean (especially Greece), pumpkin seeds became a standard part of everyday cuisine, and culinary and medical traditions in India and other parts of Asia also incorporated this food into a place of importance.
Today, China produces more pumpkins and pumpkin seeds than any other country. India, Russia, the Ukraine, Mexico, and the U.S. are also major producers of pumpkin and pumpkin seeds. In the U.S., Illinois is the largest producer of pumpkins, followed by California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New York. However, pumpkins are now grown commercially in virtually all U.S. states, and over 100,000 acres of U.S. farmland are planted with pumpkins.
Pumpkin seeds, pumpkin seed extracts, and pumpkin seed oil have long been valued for their anti-microbial benefits, including their anti-fungal and anti-viral properties. Research points to the role of unique proteins in pumpkin seeds as the source of many antimicrobial benefits. The lignans in pumpkin seeds (including pinoresinol, medioresinol, and lariciresinol) have also been shown to have antimicrobial—and especially anti-viral— properties. Impact of pumpkin seed proteins and pumpkin seed phytonutrients like lignans on the activity of a messaging molecule called interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) is likely to be involved in the antimicrobial benefits associated with this food.
Because oxidative stress is known to play a role in the development of some cancers, and pumpkin seeds are unique in their composition of antioxidant nutrients, it’s not surprising to find some preliminary evidence of decreased cancer risk in association with pumpkin seed intake. However, the antioxidant content of pumpkin seeds has not been the focus of preliminary research in this cancer area. Instead, the research has focused on lignans. Only breast cancer and prostate cancer seem to have received much attention in the research world in connection with pumpkin seed intake, and much of that attention has been limited to the lignan content of pumpkin seeds. To some extent, this same focus on lignans has occurred in research on prostate cancer as well. For these reasons, we cannot describe the cancer-related benefits of pumpkin seeds as being well-documented in the research, even though pumpkin seeds may eventually be shown to have important health benefits in this area.
Pumpkin seed extracts and oils have long been used in treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH). BPH is a health problem involving non-cancer enlargement of the prostate gland, and it commonly affects middle-aged and older men in the U.S. Studies have linked different nutrients in pumpkin seeds to their beneficial effects on BPH, including their phytosterols, lignans, and zinc. Among these groups, research on phytosterols is the strongest, and it centers on three phytosterols found in pumpkin seeds: beta-sitosterol, sitostanol, and avenasterol. The phytosterols campesterol, stigmasterol, and campestanol have also been found in pumpkin seeds in some studies. Unfortunately, studies on BPH have typically involved extracts or oils rather than pumpkin seeds themselves. For this reason, it’s just not possible to tell whether everyday intake of pumpkin seeds in food form has a beneficial impact on BPH. Equally impossible to determine is whether intake of pumpkin seeds in food form can lower a man’s risk of BPH. We look forward to future studies that will hopefully provide us with answers to those questions.
To the best of my knowledge less study has been conducted on Nigerian variety of pumpkin. Therefore, the present study is designed for Nigerian variety of pumpkin seed and its oil to see its need as a functional food. Cucurbita pepo has broad uses in traditional medicine for many cases, it hasn’t side effects. Fruits, seeds and leaves are the most used parts, some of its active compounds are still unknown. The seeds contain material killed tap warm when used as dough evict it out with feces, it is save way without side effects while synthesis drags have serious damage[1]. Fruit’s juice of pumpkin has analgesic effect for head ache, also it is considered abdominal laxative. When we make bandage of seeds on the head useful in treatment tumors in brain and its peal use for treatment tumors of ear, eyes and gout[2].
The main objectives of this research were to investigate the physiochemical properties of pumpkin seed oil and antimicrobial activity of pumpkin seed oil. Nutritional and health protective value of pumpkin draws considerable attention of food scientists in recent years (Fokou et al., 2004). Pumpkin belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae which is an angiosperm, genus Cucurbita with different varieties (Alfawaz, 2004). Pumpkin fruit carries more than 500 seeds which are interspersed in a net like structure called mucilaginous fibers present at its central inner cavity. They are covered with a protective layer called testa.
The key question to be answered in the course of this research is if pumpkin seed actually contain antimicrobial activity that can be used by different fields to improve life and medicine.
The research issues above can be investigated by a number of means, but lend themselves especially well to empirical investigation and testing of a number of specific hypotheses.
H1: Pumpkin seed contain very good antimicrobial activity that can be used by different fields to improve life and medicine
H2: Pumpkin seed contain no antimicrobial activity that can be used by different fields to improve life and medicine
This issue requires an analytical methodology for empirical testing (see Chapter 3 below). By “efficiency” is meant the amalgam of technical efficiency in terms of producing the most output with a given set of inputs and allocative efficiency, in terms of using the most efficient combination of inputs given prevailing prices. If hypothesis one above and the present hypothesis both fail to hold, the outlook for smallholders is pretty good, since the combination of higher unit profits and greater efficiency would mean that they could either displace large farmers, or possibly eventually become large farmers!
1.6.1. Plant Material Materials were collected from hazelnut samples (Corylus maxima Mill.), in Trabzon on Blacksea Coast; peanut samples (Arachis hypogaea L.), in Osmaniye; pistachio samples (Pistacia vera L.), in Gaziantep; almond samples (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.), in Mugla; walnut samples (Junglas regia L.), in Balıkesir; chestnut samples (Castanea sativa Mill.), in Bursa; pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo L.) and sunflower seeds (Helianthus annus L.) in Edirne province in 2008 harvesting time.
1.6.2. Fatty Acid Composition Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were prepared from oil samples and determined by gas chromatography (GC) according to the method described by Slover and Lanza [29]. FAMEs were prepared using BF3 in methanol (20% of BF3 in methanol) and extracted with n-hexane and then analyzed by GC.
1.6.3. Radical-Scavenging Activity (Antioxidant Activity) The free-radical-scavenging activity of the extracts was determined by the DPPH. assay as described by Bloiss [30]. Briefly, each sample was diluted in methanol prior to the analysis (1 mg/mL). An aliquot (0.1 mL) of the solution was added to 3.9 mL of DPPH solution (6×10-5 M in methanol), throughly mixed, and the absorbance of the sample at 515 nm was recorded after the time necessary for the reaction to reach a plateau [31]. The absorbance of DPPH solution in methanol, without any antioxidant (control), was also measured. The percentage of remaining DPPH was calculated as follows: % DPPH scavenging = [(Acontrol – Asample)/Acontrol] x 100 Where Asample is the absorbance of sample after the time necessary to reach the plateau (30 min) and Acontrol is the absorbance of DPPH.
1.6.4. Vitamin A (Retinol) and Vitamin E (-Tocopherol) Content Retinol and -tocopherol exhibit their characteristic maxima of UV absorption at 324 and 292 nm, respectively. The best separation within a reasonable time as well as good peak shape were achieved with a mobile phase consisting of methanol and n-hexane in proportion of 72:28 at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The retention times were: 2.24±0.01 and 2.95±0.03 min for retinol and -tocopherol respectively. To determine the amounts of retinol and -tocopherol samples calibration curves were constructed by plotting the peak areas versus the concentration. Linearity was achieved in the concentration range 0.35–70 and 0.23–46 μM for all-trans-retinol and -tocopherol respectively. The detection limits calculated as signal-to-noise ratio equal to 2 were: 1.10 μM for retinol and 0.78 μM for -tocopherol [32-34]. 1.6.5. The Antimicrobial Activity The antimicrobial activities are evaluated against Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Bacillus cereus ATCC 7064, Mycobacterium smegmatis CCM 2067, Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 15313, Micrococcus luteus La 2971) and Gram negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 11230, Klebsiella pneumoniae UC57, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Proteus vulgaris ATCC 8427) bacteria and the yeast cultures (Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Kluyveromyces fragilis NRRL 2415, Rhodotorula rubra DSM 70403, Debaryomyces hansenii DSM 70238 and Hanseniaspora guilliermondii DSM 3432) using disk diffusion method. Antimicrobial screening: Disk diffusion method: Sterilized antibiotic discs (6 mm) were used following the literature procedure [35- 38].
2.6. Mineral Content Spectroscopic determination of minerals (Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, copper, manganese, selenium, zinc, chromium, aluminum) of samples was performed with a Varian Liberty Series II AX sequential model inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES) with a glass nebulizer and SPS 5.
2.7. Calorie Values The calorie values of samples were measured using a LECO-AC (350) Bomb Calorimeter. The samples were placed in the bomb chamber, pressurized to 425 psi with pure oxygen, combusted and the amount of heat liberated recorded on a plotter. The calorimeter was calibrated against benzoic acid standard before the analysis of samples [39].
The antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has been recognized for many years. However, few investigations have compared large numbers of oils and extracts using methods that are directly comparable. In the present study, 52 plant oils and extracts were investigated for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens and Staphylococcus aureus, using an agar dilution method. Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of ≤2·0% (v/v). Six oils did not inhibit any organisms at the highest concentration, which was 2·0% (v/v) oil for apricot kernel, evening primrose, macadamia, pumpkin, sage and sweet almond. Variable activity was recorded for the remaining oils. Twenty of the plant oils and extracts were investigated, using a broth microdilution method, for activity against C. albicans, Staph. aureus and E. coli. The lowest minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0·03% (v/v) thyme oil against C. albicans and E. coli and 0·008% (v/v) vetiver oil against Staph. aureus. These results support the notion that plant essential oils and extracts may have a role as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.
Some of the limitations of this study include external validity, or the generalizability of the study. The study did not distinguish between positional isomers (e.g. ω-3 versus ω-6 linolenic acid). The sum of myristic and palmitic acid (cholesterogenic saturated fatty acids) content ranged from 12.8 to 18.7%. The total unsaturated acid content ranged from 73.1 to 80.5%. The very long chain fatty acid (> 18 carbon atoms) content ranged from 0.44 to 1.37%. There were only 13 participants who participated in the complete study, and each participant was a college-degreed professional residing in the mid-west area of the University of Portharcourt Nigeria. In addition, the participants were all middle to upper middle class adults without learning disabilities.
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AN ANALYSIS OF INFANT AND MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE IN NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
The first five years of life are the most crucial to the physical and intellectual development of children and can determine their potential to learn and thrive for a life time. That is why it is specifically stated as one of the goals of the MDGs to reduce infant mortality by two thirds by 2015. Although there has been a substantial reduction in infant and child mortality rates in most developing countries in the recent past, it still remains a major public health issue in Sub-Saharan Africa, with special reference to Nigeria; the giant of Africa. The main purpose of this study is to ascertain the influencing factors on infant and child mortality in Nigeria. Survey data from the National Health Demographic Survey have been used to examine the patterns of infant and child of mortality. The simple regression estimation technique was employed to investigate the effects of some selected socio-economic variables on infant and child mortality. The selected variables include: the educational attainment of mother s, place of delivery, women’s status respecting decision making in the house
which are; final Say on Mother’s Health Care, final Say on Making Large Household Purchases, final Say on Making Household Purchases for Daily Needs, final Say on Visits to Family or Relatives, final Say on Deciding What to do WithMoney Husbands Earns. The study reveals that their exist positive linear association between infant and child mortality and each of the variables serving as indicators for women’s status. This stu dy was able to find out that place of delivery plays acrucial role, as better places of deliveries significantly reduce infant and child mortality in Nigeria. Also that higher level of educational attainment has negative impact on infant and child mortality.
Nigeria, despite its rich oil wealth has one of the poorest perinatal statistics in the world with perinatal mortality rates ranging from 39 to 130 per 1000. The aim of this review is to describe the state of the Nigerian nation with respect to perinatal deaths, causes of the high perinatal deaths, present interventions in place and ways to reduce this alarming perinatal statistics.
Infant and child mortality rates are important indicators of the health status of a country. This paper presents the spatial analysis of infant and child mortality rates among the geopolitical zones of Nigeria with the objective of highlighting the unevenness in childhood mortality rates among the regions. Data for the study was obtained from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999 and 2008. The findings of the research show that there were significant spatial differences in infant mortality rates and under-five mortality rates among the country’s geo-political regions in 1999 and 2008 and by rural urban residence. Under-five mortality rates showed significant clustering among the geopolitical zones with the Northeast depicting clusters of highest under-five mortality rates while the Southwest had the lowest under-five mortality rate clusters. The Moran’s I values were significant at p<0.01 confirming the spatial clustering of under-five mortality rates. The infant mortality rate of 75 deaths per 1,000 live births and the under-five mortality rate of 157 deaths per 1,000 live births in Nigeria in 2008 are considered high compared to those of developed countries and to the expected two-third reductions in the rates by 2015. The paper recommends improvement in public health services, enhanced accessibility to medical services, and the education of mothers on the importance of healthy child care practices as panacea for the reduction of childhood mortality rates to acceptable levels.
Globally, childhood mortality rates have decline over the years due majorly to various action plans and interventions targeted at various communicable diseases and other immunizable childhood infections which have been major causes of child mortality, but the situation seems to remain unchanged in sub-Saharan African countries, as approximately half of these deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa despite the region having only one fifth of the world’s children population. Many covariates associated with variations in infant and child mortality are interrelated, and it is important to attempt to isolate the effects of individual variables for proper and effective interventions. This study examined the environmental determinants of child mortality using principal component analysis as a data reduction technique with varimax rotation to assess the underlying structure for sixty-five measured variables, explaining the covariance relationships amongst the large correlated variables in a more parsimonious way and simultaneous multiple regression for child mortality modelling in Nigeria. For purpose of robustness, a model selection technique procedure was implemented. Estimation from the stepwise regression
model shows that household environmental characteristics do have significant impact on mortality.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Infant mortality rate is one of the most important indications of human development. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) according to is the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1000 live births in a given year. Included in the IMR are the neonatal mortality rate (calculated from deaths occurring in the first four weeks of life), and post neonatal mortality rate (from deaths in the remainder of the first year). Neonatal deaths are further subdivided into early (first week) and late (second, third and fourth weeks). In prosperous countries, neonatal deaths account for about two-third of infant mortalities. The IMR is usually regarded more as a measure of social affluence than a measure of the quality of antenatal and obstetric care.
The infant mortality rate is widely accepted as one of the most useful single measure of health status of the community. The infant mortality rate may be very high in communities where health and social services are poorly developed. For example, the neonatal death rate is related to problems arising during pregnancy (congenital abnormalities, low birth weight); delivery (birth injuries, asphyxia), afterdelivery (tetanus, other infections). Thus, neonatal mortality rate is related to maternal and obstetric factors. Maternal mortality as a significant public health problem was first highlighted in 1987 at the first International Safe Motherhood Conference in Nairobi, Kenya. Current estimates of maternal mortality indicate that about 358 000 maternal deaths resulting from complications of pregnancy and childbirth occur annually1. For every maternal death, many more women suffer serious complications.
The causes of the vast majority of these deaths and complications namely obstetric haemorrhage, sepsis, unsafe abortion, hypertensive disorders, and obstructed labour are preventable3. Maternal mortality is a reflection of women’s place in society and their lack of access to social, health and nutrition services, and to economic opportunities2. Introduction of improved asepsis, caesarean section, blood transfusion services, and improved prenatal care curtailed maternal mortality in industrialized nations almost a century ago4. However, access to these interventions is limited in developing countries.
There are several dimensions to maternal mortality. Fundamentally, a woman’s death during pregnancy or childbirth is not only a health issue but also a matter of social injustice2 reflecting the failure of communities and governments to promote safe motherhood as a human right5, 6. Maternal mortality also reflects disparities in socio-economic development. The overwhelming majority of maternal deaths occur in developing countries2. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia account for about 87% of all maternal deaths1. The lifetime risk of maternal death in sub-Saharan Africa is 1 in 31 compared to 1 in 4,300 in developed regions1. The higher risk in developing countries reflects limited quality of care and provision of maternal health services7,8. In sharp contrast, sequel to improvements in obstetric care over the past decades, a pregnant woman in the United Kingdom is reported to face a less than 1 in 19,020 risk of dying from obstetric complications directly related to the pregnant state9.
Goal five of the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) aims to achieve three-quarter reduction of maternal mortality by 201510. Previous estimates of maternal mortality ratio in Nigeria showed that there had been an increase from 80011 to 1 10012 per 100 000 live births. However, the 2008 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) for Nigeria showed a decline in maternal mortality with a maternal mortality ratio of 545 maternal deaths per 100 000 live births13. Facility-based data support the contention that maternal mortality is on the decline. However, the figures remain high14. High maternal mortality in Nigeria is supported by the finding that Nigeria, along with five other countries contributed more than 50% of all maternal deaths worldwide in 200815. Given the weak civic registration and national health information systems in many developing countries, these estimates remain guess work16. Therefore urgent initiatives to monitor maternal morbidity and mortality are imperative17 to provide reliable information for planning and evaluation.
The WHO Global Maternal and Perinatal Health Survey implemented in 2005 aimed to establish a global data system comprising a network of health facilities that will collect focused information on maternal and perinatal health to facilitate identification of morbidity and mortality, monitoring of use of interventions and programme evaluation. This report discusses maternal characteristics associated with maternal mortality in Nigeria.
Common as death may be, gathered statistics of mortality rate, when on the high side apparently becomes disturbing and more catastrophic,especially when the death figures are on theincrease among young children, as this stressesand indicates a future absent the human race. For this reason, health expertsand policy makers have allocated specialinterest to the developments and checkmating of rising child mortality rates. Not only has thisinterest stretched into the international scene, ithas attracted systematic approaches to reducingchild mortality by 2/3 among children under theage of five from 1990 and 2015 as tagged in the
Goals (MDGs) for public health workers,institutions and international developmentagencies. (Fox 2012).Despite this goal of reducing infant and childmortality rate as stated in the MDGs, Childmortality rates still remain unacceptably highespecially in sub-Saharan African countries,where close to 50 percent of childhood deathstakes place, even when the region accounts for only one fifth of the world’s child population(Mesike and Mojekwu 2012). For instance, insub-Saharan Africa, 1 in every 8 children dies before age five- nearly 20 times the average of 1in 167 in developed parts of the world(Mojekwu and Ajilola, 2011). Similarly,UNICEF (2010) in the state of the world ’s children report noted that 8.1 million children across the world who died in 2009 before their fifth birthday lived in developing countries anddied from a disease or a combination of diseases that could easily have been prevented or treated. It also noted that, half of these deaths occurred in just five countries namely, India, Nigeria, the democratic republic of Congo, Pakistan and China; with India and Nigeria both accountingfor one third of the total number of under fivedeaths worldwide. The report describes the phenomenon as disturbing and grosslyinsufficient to achieve the MDG goal by 2015as only 9 out of the 64 countries with high child mortality rate are on track to meet the MDGgoal.Several factors have been acclaimed to beresponsible for this ugly trend of high child andinfant mortality. Childhood illnesses such asvaccines preventable diseases (VPD), malaria,acute respiratory infections (ARI), and diarrhea contribute substantially to morbidity andmortality among children less than five yearsold. Data from National Health ManagementInformation Systems (NHMIS) shows thatmalaria is by far the most important cause of morbidity (38%) and mortality (28%) in infantsand children, while 75% of malaria deaths occur in children under five. Malaria also accounts for about 11% of maternal deaths, especially for thefirst-time mothers. Estimates show that 50% of the population has at least one episode of malaria each year, whereas children less than age five suffer from two to four attacks a year.Diarrheal illness is reported to be the secondmost common cause of infant deaths and themain cause of under-five mortality. Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) which include awide range of upper and lower respiratory tract infections (pneumonia), commonly manifestingwith cough, fever and rapid breathing were themain cause of under-five morbidity and infant mortality. UNICEF (2009) indicated that 25%of the population carries the sickle cell trait, andabout 100,000 children born annually isreported to have a serious sickle cell disorder.Aside the health related factors influencingchild survival as mentioned above, there are non-health related or socio-economic factors that can affect a child’s survival. Examples are;
Female Literacy, the status of the mother regarding her level of participation in
household’s decision making, access to safe and
adequate sanitation, poverty, cultural andgender bias etc.The purpose of this study is to examine theimpact of this non-health related factors on infant and child mortality rate in Nigeria.
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THE ATTITUDE OF WOMEN OF CHILD BEARING BETWEEN (15-49) YEARS OF AGE ON FAMILY PLANNING
ABSTRACT
This work discusses the attitude of women of child bearing between (15-49) years of age on family planning. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were shared amongst women from selected states in Nigeria. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data were used the analysis. Both frequency distribution and regression analysis were used.
It was observed therefore that most of the women have negative attitudes towards child bearing, and this have a significant impact on their family planning. Also, there is a relationship between the attitude of women of child bearing and their family planning.
The work is made of five chapters with bibliography and list of references
TABLE OF CONTENT:
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Bibliography
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ROLE OF HEALTH EDUCATION IN IMPROVING MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH CARE DELIVERY IN STATE AND PRIVATE HOSPITALS IN ABEOKUTA
Abstract:
Maternal and child health remain critical components of public health, and the role of health education in improving healthcare delivery for mothers and children is paramount. This study investigates the effectiveness of health education interventions in enhancing maternal and child health care delivery in both state and private hospitals in Abeokuta, Nigeria.
The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with healthcare providers, expectant mothers, and recent mothers. The primary objectives include assessing the impact of health education programs on maternal and child health outcomes, identifying factors influencing the utilization of health education services, and comparing the effectiveness of health education initiatives in state and private hospital settings.
Through statistical analyses and thematic content analysis, the study seeks to provide insights into the key elements that contribute to the success of health education interventions, potential barriers to their implementation, and the overall improvement in maternal and child health care services. The findings aim to inform healthcare policy, guide the development of targeted health education programs, and contribute to the enhancement of maternal and child health outcomes in both state and private healthcare settings in Abeokuta.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Maternal and child health is a critical aspect of public health that directly influences the well-being of communities. Adequate healthcare during pregnancy, childbirth, and early childhood is essential for reducing maternal and child morbidity and mortality. In Nigeria, despite progress in healthcare infrastructure, challenges persist in maternal and child health care delivery. Abeokuta, as a representative Nigerian city, faces issues related to accessibility, quality, and utilization of maternal and child health services. Health education emerges as a pivotal strategy in addressing these challenges and improving health outcomes for mothers and children.
There have been high incidence of maternal and child death in developingcountries especially in Africa which has the highest maternal mortality rate and the lowest child health status among the regions of the world (Uyanga,1991).
Apart from the thousands of women who die, millions of women suffer from permanent disabilities. In addition, millions of children are left motherless due to maternal deaths (Otubu, 1992).
Going in the statistical perspective, according to UNICEF (2000), for Nigeria, life expectancy at birth in 1998 was 50 years, infant mortality rate in 1998 was 112 per 1000, in less than 5 year time mortality rate was 197 per 1000, while maternal mortality rate in the year 2000 was 700 per 100,000.
In a recent study in Sokoto and Kebbi States, maternal mortality rateswere found to be between 1,000 and 1,200 per 100,000 live births andwomen in the childbearing age group had an awfully high 1 in 17 life-timerisk of dying during pregnancy or at childbirth (Shehu, 1994). Other studies alsoshow that 60 percent of the maternal deaths, occurs at home within thecommunity and 7 per cent occurs on the way to a health institution, thussuggesting that most of these deaths arise from conditions which are eitherpreventable or easily cured if medical services were sought earlier or withineasy reach. Furthermore, in Nigeria, nearly one in five children dies beforetheir fifth birthday (NDHS, 1990).
There is therefore the need to reduce thehigh incidences of deaths among mothers and children in the developingcountries for which timely and adequate utilization of important weapons like health education and modern medical care.
In Lagos State for example, there are striking variationsin immunization coverage (Lagos State Immunization Survey, 1991)contrary to expectations that Lagos State as a city with the greatestconcentration of health facilities, would have the best spread of the healthcare facilities among its different parts and populace. There were alsomarked variations in the coverage level of maternal care among the differentlocal government areas of the state.
Nonetheless, the literature on maternal and infant mortality in developed and developing countries has established that areas of high rates are usuallyrural areas as a result of poor health education and awareness.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Maternal and child health indicators in Nigeria, including Abeokuta, reveal persistent challenges such as high maternal mortality rates, inadequate antenatal care, and suboptimal child immunization coverage. Understanding the role of health education in influencing maternal and child health care delivery is crucial for developing targeted interventions and enhancing healthcare services. This study aims to investigate the specific contributions of health education in both state and private hospitals in Abeokuta and assess its impact on improving maternal and child health outcomes.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objectives of this study are as follows:
To assess the existing maternal and child health care delivery practices in state and private hospitals in Abeokuta.
To evaluate the role and effectiveness of health education interventions in improving maternal and child health outcomes.
To identify the factors influencing the utilization of health education services among expectant mothers and caregivers in both state and private healthcare settings.
To compare the impact of health education programs on maternal and child health in state and private hospitals.
1.4 Research Questions
To achieve the outlined objectives, the study will address the following research questions:
What are the current practices and challenges in maternal and child health care delivery in state and private hospitals in Abeokuta?
How effective are health education interventions in improving maternal and child health outcomes in both hospital settings?
What factors influence the utilization of health education services by expectant mothers and caregivers?
Are there differences in the impact of health education programs on maternal and child health between state and private hospitals?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study holds significant implications for healthcare policy, practice, and research. The findings will contribute to:
Policy Development: Insights from the study can inform the development of evidence-based policies aimed at improving maternal and child health care delivery through strategic health education interventions.
Healthcare Practices: Healthcare practitioners can benefit from a deeper understanding of the role of health education in influencing positive maternal and child health outcomes, guiding their approaches to patient education and support.
Research Advancements: The study adds to the existing body of knowledge on maternal and child health in the Nigerian context, offering insights that can guide future research endeavors.
Community Empowerment: Understanding the factors influencing the utilization of health education services can empower communities to actively engage in their health, fostering a sense of responsibility and ownership of maternal and child health.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on state and private hospitals in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. The research encompasses an assessment of maternal and child health care delivery practices, the role of health education interventions, and factors influencing the utilization of health education services. The scope is delimited to a specific timeframe and is designed to provide a detailed examination of the selected healthcare settings.
1.7 Research Methodology
The research will employ a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. The study will involve healthcare providers, expectant mothers, and caregivers in both state and private hospitals. Quantitative data will be analyzed using statistical methods, while qualitative data will undergo thematic content analysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research questions.
1.8 Organization of the Thesis
The thesis will be organized into several chapters. Chapter Two will review relevant literature on maternal and child health, health education, and factors influencing healthcare utilization. Chapter Three will detail the research methodology, including the design, participants, and data collection procedures. Chapter Four will present and analyze the data, while Chapter Five will discuss the findings, draw conclusions, and offer recommendations for policy, practice, and future research based on the study’s outcomes.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms used on this study should be taken to mean the following:
NDHS: National Demographic Health Survey
PHC: Primary Health Care
ANC: Antenatal Care
WHO: World Health Organisation
UNICEF: United Nations International Cultural and Educational Foundation
Maternal mortality: The death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy irrespective of the site and duration of pregnancy from any acutely related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.
Health education: Awareness about health related issued with the intention of teaching new and improved strategies to manage health related issues at certain conditions. Etc.
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PREVALENCE OF INTESTINAL PARASITES AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Parasitic infestations are common in Nigeria especially in rural areas. One fact is that these infections have been associated with low standard of sanitation and between 500 million and 1 billion people are estimated to be infected annually worldwide (WHO,1992; Taiwo and Agbolade,2000; Adeyeba and Akinlabi,2002).
It is recognized that certain factors play important roles which include: the strain and number of the parasites, age and level of immunity at the time of infestation, immune responses to the infestations,presence of co-existing diseases or conditions which reduce immune responses, malnutritional undertone due to iron deficiency, folic acid and protein deficiency. This could occur singly or in combination with other causative agents (McGregoret al., 1996).
Intestinal parasites are parasites that populate the gastro- intestinal tract. In humans, they are often spread by poor hygiene related to faeces, contact with animals or poorly cooked food containing parasites. The major groups of parasites include protozoans (organisms having only one cell) and parasitic worms (Helminthes) of these, Protozoans, including Cryptosporidium, Micrsporidium and Isospora are most common in HIV-infected persons. Other are Entamoebahistolytica, Balatidium coli,Giardia lambliaetc, each of these parasites can infect the digestive tract, and sometimes two or more can cause infection at the same time.
Human intestinal helminthic parasites are worms that inhabit the body lumens of the gut (Agboladeet al., 2004), they are among the most common infection occurring throughout the developing world. Intestinal parasites are regarded as important public health problem in tropical Africa (Odutanet al.,1974).These parasites are amongst the most prevalent human infections affecting approximately one quarter of the world’s populations, mainly school children due to their poor hygienic nature or poor sanitary conditions coupled with their voracious eating habits( WHO,2002).
Parasites can get into the intestine through the mouth from uncooked or unwashed food, contaminated water or hands or by skin contact with larva infection soil. People can also become infected with intestinal parasites if they have mouth contact with the genital or rectal area of a sexual partner who is infected (e.g. oral sex or anal-oral contact). When the organisms are swallowed, they move into the intestine, where they reproduce and cause disease.
In some people, intestinal parasites do not cause any symptoms or the symptoms may come and go. Common signs and complaints include coughing, cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence and diarrhea. In more serious diminished sex drive, skin-itching, fever, nausea, vomiting or bloody stools may occur. Some parasites also cause low red blood count (anemia) and some travel from the lungs to the intestinal or vice versa and other parts of the body. Therefore, laboratory test are necessary to determine their cause.
However, because many parasitic infections especially those of helminthes origin are usually asymptomatic or produce only mild symptoms, they are often neglected until serious complications or chronic clinical pictures appear (WHO,2002).The presence of these parasites in asymptomatic carriers has been a major source of infection to susceptible hosts, hence compounding the problem.
In endemic countries, gastro-intestinal infections are most prevalent in rural communities, peri-urban settings and urban slims (Fashyiet al., 1999). Although, intestinal parasites could be considered as major problem in rural settlements in Nigeria due to their poor socio-economic status and lack of basic amenities such as water, toilets facilities etc. the problems of these infections are also increasing in the urban areas due to similar deficiencies.
In Nigeria, many intervention schemes which were attempted to control these infections did not yield much successes, many are still heavily infected particularly children (Ijagbone and Olagunju,2006). In view of the negative socio-economic impact of these parasitic infections on infected humans, efforts would be made to elucidate their epidemiological state among pupils. Therefore the study was carried out to know the prevalence and types of intestinal parasites infection among the children, the intensity of infection and to draw the attention of the local authority to the rate of infection so as to eradicate the problem among the children.
There may have been previous researches in this subject. This work gives further explanations and analysis in prevalence of intestinal parasites among primary school children
H0: There is no relationship between intestinal parasites and the health status of primary school pupils
H1: There is a relationship between intestinal parasites and the health status of primary school pupils
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ASSESSMENT OF RADIATION HAZARD AWARENESS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ORLU METROPOLIS
ABSTRACT
Radiation protection entails the harmful effect of ionizing radiation, the interaction of any amount of ionizing radiation of any type, such as X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles with a biological system results in the absorption of the energy of the radiation by the system. This in turn may result in effects that become manifest in the exposed individuals (somatic effects) or appear in the descendant of exposed individuals (Genetic or Hereditary effects). The physics of the absorption process is over in 10-16 seconds, the chemistry takes longer, since the life time of the free radical is about 10-6 seconds, the biology takes days to months for cell killing, years for carcinogenesis, and generations for heredity damage. Available information on human susceptibility to effects of ionizing radiations has it that the lethal dose for 50% of the exposed population to die within thirty days of exposure is about three gray, for whole body exposure. Some organs and tissues are more sensitive to radiation and some are less. More sensitive tissues are blood forming organs, reproductive organs are those that constitute the nervous system. Death of a person may result from the overall exposure of the body for the destruction of vital organs. Acute exposure and chronic exposure at equal total doses may or may not produce the same effects.
This work gives an assessment of radiation hazard awareness among primary school teachers in orlu metropolis. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among primary school teachers from orlu metropolis. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that radiation hazard awareness have a strong and significant positive impact on the public health safety among primary school teachers.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
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USING THE MEDIA FOR HEALTH EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN TOMBIA
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the media use for health education programmes in selected health institutions in Tombia, Nigeria. Survey research design method was adopted for the study. Data were collected from 140 respondents using questionnaire , interview and observation as the instrument. The data were analyzed and presented in tables of frequencies and percentages. The research findings revealed that health institutions were yet to fully implement the use of Information Technology such as Video Conferencing and Teleconferencing in health education. It was also discovered that erratic power supply and high cost of acquiring the media materials were the major obstacles to using information technology. Breast cancer is a leading female malignancy and a major health concern in the world today. In Nigeria, breast cancer is one of the leading causes of death in women aged 30 years and above. It reduces the life expectancy of the population at risk, especially those between 31 and 50 years of age. This paper examines the use of mass media to create awareness of breast cancer among women in Nigeria. In addition, the paper explores the theoretical understanding of the importance of mass media in creating awareness of health issues. The author further suggests various pathways whereby mass media strategies could be used in creating awareness of breast cancer in Nigeria. The beliefs, attitudes and motives that underlie poor health practices often are deeply-rooted and emotion-laden. For this and other reasons, it typically is difficult to persuade people to engage in activities which relate to health maintenance. Recently published literature indicates that there is some disillusionment with mass media campaigns as a tool for changing health behavior. Although such campaigns can make an impact, they often do not. The present paper discusses the role of mass communications in health marketing programs and suggests some ways in which the planning, implementation and evaluation of media efforts can be improved. [ to cite ]: Mary Jane Schlinger (1976) ,”The Role of Mass Communications in Promoting Public Health”, in NA – Advances in Consumer Research Volume 03, eds. Beverlee B. Anderson, Cincinnati, OH : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 302-305.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The mass media play a pivotal role in the development process of a country. The mass media are generally regarded as channels of communication that are capable of reaching heterogeneous audiences simultaneously with uniform messages. The mass media in Nigeria regularly cover all sorts of issues such as health, music, fine art, crime, sports, and political events (Meyer, 2002; Soola, 2004). The mass media transmit ideas and new information to target audience in the society. Tosanwumi (1994) has observed that the mass media educate, inform, and entertain. Beyond these functions, they also persuade and catalyze social mobilization. In other words, the mass media can be regarded as powerful sources of information because they have the capability to penetrate every segment of the society. They have the ability to disseminate messages about issues, ideals and products. Furthermore, the mass media have the capacity to create awareness and knowledge about issues of national interest.
The traditional mass media usually consist of radio, television, newspaper, and magazine. The radio has been regarded as the most pervasive and most effective medium in reaching the country’s widely dispersed, heterogeneous audience. It is reputed worldwide for being the cheapest, simplest and most portable medium of mass communication for reaching people. Soola (2009) has reasoned that the radio is not limited by electricity, which is hardly available and epileptic in its supply when available. In addition, the radio is as extremely mobile: people could listen to a radio program in their car, home, or office. However, due to the downturn in the Nigerian economy and its toll on people’s purchasing power, both the hardware and software of this medium has become expensive for an average income earner. Soola (1999) has observed that radio sets and batteries are expensive in Nigerian society. He also added the batteries of these radio set are becoming less long-lasting. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the radio, being ubiquitous in nature, can be regarded as a powerful source of information.
Television possesses the unique characteristics of sound, sight, and motion, which it combines with simultaneity. It also transcends the bounds often imposed by illiteracy on information and knowledge acquisition. In addition, its status conferral on individuals or demonstrated practices is unrivaled (Soola, 2009; Soola, 1999). In other words, television has the capacity of audio-visual presentation of programs and, by virtue of its ownership and operational structure, can be regarded as an urban medium. In addition, television has the ability to reach a heterogeneous audience in both rural and urban settings. However, television has its limitations in Nigeria; Soola (1999) has argued that television stations in Nigeria suffer from poor production capability, declining economic fortunes, and cheap foreign alternatives. He also observed that a stocktaking of a typical evening program offering on most Nigerian private television stations reveals that most of the programs are entertainment-centered. It is pertinent to note that most of the limitations of the electronic media are man-made and systemic and not a creation of electronic technology. It is believed that all these limitations can be overcome, when the government, media owners and managers are committed to socio-economic development and growth of a nation.
The print media, on the other hand, can be used to educate, enlighten, and mobilize people to a particular issue of national interest. The print media primarily refers to newspapers and magazines, though other forms of print media include billboards, posters, handbills, pamphlets, and brochures. Two unique advantages of the print media are its permanence and the possibility of information custody and storage for close reading and future use. Soola (2009) has, however, noted that certain user requirements often limit print media reach. The first user requirement is that he or she must be literate, at least in the local language. Among a predominantly non-literate rural population, print media reach is severely limited, particularly as more than 70 percent of them are published in the English language. In addition, it should be noted that newspapers and magazines in Nigeria are becoming increasing endangered by the anxiety to survive at all cost. This can be observed as most of the pages of a newspaper are clustered with advertisements. Nevertheless, the use of newspapers and magazines for development purposes is essential to enlighten and mobilize people.
The internet with its multimedia capabilities has affected the traditional ways individuals access the mass media in the society (Adaja, 2005). With the rise of internet as a new media, the possibility to express one’s self has become easier. The internet is increasingly being defined by new digital technologies that empower users to develop, create, rate, and distribute internet content and applications (O‘Reilly, 2005). Generally, the internet is a worldwide network of computer networks, connected to each other by telecommunication links. It is made up of an ever-growing number of organizations and individuals who have decided to share information in this giant, interconnected open system (Norton & Smith, 1996). Okpoko (2006) argued that the principal functions of the internet are communication (e-mail), information gathering, and electronic marketing. The advent of multimedia devices such as smartphones, iPads, and others have revolutionized the ways in which individuals access information. Individuals can have access to their radio and television programs with the use of their multimedia devices. People can also get sports updates and news reports on their cell phones. In 1969, Kotler and Levy published a seminal article, “Broadening the Concept of Marketing,” which stimulated widespread interest in applying the principles and concepts of marketing outside of the traditional for-profit business arena. Concomitantly, marketing researchers began focusing increased attention on the consumer decision-making process as it operates in such diverse areas as politics, religion, education and health.
The entire issue of the July, 1971, Journal of Marketing was devoted to what might be called public service or social marketing, i.e., the marketing of ideas, services, products and organizations that are intended to help accomplish societal goals. The 1971, 1972 and 1973 Association for Consumer Research national conferences each incorporated sessions on broadening the concept of consumer behavior. The following year, a series of papers was delivered on marketing political candidates. And in 1975, the Association for Consumer Research program included a session titled “Consumer Behavior and Public Health.”
The purpose of this paper is to examine the “Consumer Behavior and Public Health” presentations and other selected literature for implications about the potential role of the mass media in promoting public health. Before doing that, however, it would be useful to review some of the problems that face would-be marketers of public health.
1.2 PROBLEM OF THE STUDY
According to the 2008 report of the MDGs, the print coverage of MDGs is low and not encouraging in the rural areas and there is media neglect especially in the print medium. Commercialization has eaten deep into the industry and issues with financial footings and backings are reported. The MDGs, targeted at 2015 is relatively unknown to the target audience, this to a great extent, throws a doubt at its survival and achievement. To this effect, it becomes imperative to say that there is negative long term and shortterm effect of poor dissemination of adequate information with regards to health in the printmedia. There is need to know if the increasing popularity of news print has strengthened or harmed peoples knowledge of their health concerns in respect to the MDG goals. Even whenthe information gets to the target audience, some are in the form that it is difficult for anaverage person in that area to understand. Most of the prints do not take into cognisance thefact that their are individual as well as cultural differences in the way people accept, processand interprets information passed on to them.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To assess the role of media in educating people of health matters in Tombia.
2. To promote health education in Tombia through media institution ns such as radio, television, newspaper, magazines and internet.
3. To reduce the rate infection and deficiencies among people through using media to education on how to be in good health.
4. To know the challenges and limitations involve in using for health education.
5. To suggest possible ways of solving this problems in to reach the ignorant poplars in various communities in Tombia.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Does media play vital role in educating people on health matters in Tombia?
2. How can media promote health education in Tombia through institutions such as radio, television, newspaper, magazines and internet?
3. Can this study reduce the rate infection and deficiencies among people through using media to education on how to be in good health?
4. What are the challenges and limitations involve in using for health education?
5. What are the possible ways of solving this problems in to reach the ignorant poplars in various communities in Tombia?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
H0: Media does play any vital role in educating people on health matters in Tombia.
H1: Media play any vital role in educating people on health matters in Tombia.
H0: Media cannot promote health education in Tombia through institutions such as radio, television, newspaper, magazines and internet.
H1: Media can promote health education in Tombia through institutions such as radio, television, newspaper, magazines and internet.
H0: This study can increase the rate infection and deficiencies among people through using media to education on how to be in good health.
H1: This study can increase the rate infection and deficiencies among people through using media to education on how to be in good health.
H0: There are no challenges and limitations involve in using for health education.
H1: There are challenges and limitations involve in using for health education.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
using the media for health educational development in Tombia
metropolis. This blog is dedicated to environmental health in Tombia, the effort of media in giving health information in Tombia. Therefore, this study will benefit and be at advantage to people such as community, traditional rulers, students, children e.t.c .
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study is centered onusing the media for health educational development in Tombia
metropolis.
1.8 LIMITATION OF STUDY
Despite the limited scope of this study certain constraints were encountered during the research of this project. Some of the constraints experienced by the researcher were given below:
i. TIME: This was a major constraint on the researcher during the period of the work. Considering the limited time given for this study, there was not much time to give this research the needed attention.
ii. FINANCE: Owing to the financial difficulty prevalent in the country and it’s resultant prices of commodities, transportation fares, research materials etc. The researcher did not find it easy meeting all his financial obligations.
iii. INFORMATION CONSTRAINTS: Nigerian researchers have never had it easy when it comes to obtaining necessary information relevant to their area of study from private business organization and even government agencies. Journalists in Tombia find it difficult to reveal their internal operations. The primary information was collected through face-to-face interview getting the published materials on this topic meant going from one library to other which was not easy. Although these problems placed limitations on the study, but it did not prevent the researcher from carrying out a detailed and comprehensive research work on the subject matter.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Health education: Health education means enlighten people on health matters. This can be done through the use of media institutions and health workers. There is growing evidence which shows that Health education interventions make a positive contribution to the improvement of human health. Within the context of Primary Health Care (PHC), promotion is critical to improving outcomes in the prevention and control of both chronic and communicable diseases, and in meeting the health-related Millennium Development Goals, particularly among poor and marginalized groups.
Environmental Health Officers :Environmental Health Officers (also known as Public Health Inspectors) are responsible for carrying out measures for protecting public health, including administering and enforcing legislation related to environmental health and providing support to minimize health and safety hazards. They are involved in a variety of activities, for example inspecting food facilities, investigating public health nuisances, and implementing disease control.
A Public Health Inspector: A Public Health Inspector (also known as an Environmental Health Officer) is a public employee who investigates health hazards in a wide variety of locations, and will take action to mitigate or eliminate the hazards.
Sanitation: “Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and feces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities.
SANITATION SERVICE DEPARTMENT: The Sanitation Services Department is responsible for ensuring a clean environment for healthy and sustainable living in line with the policy of an integrated approach to environmental sanitation and enhancement. The department also organizes seminars on environmental Advocacy/Awareness campaign for the informal sector (artisans, market men and women, taxi drivers etc).
Improved sanitation – refers to the management of human faeces at the household level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
D. DEVELOPMENT
To the ordinary man on the street development means the provision of tangible social infrastructure like roads, hospitals, schools, and decent pipe-borne water, constant power supply and other social amenities.
Professionals like economists view development as change that realistically enhances people’s earnings in addition to raising their living standards via large – scale production of goods and services. In the perspective of philosphphers, development is viewed as the attainment of meaningful degree of alertness and the sophistication of human faculties to the level of the individual in society can not only reason well but also, adopt a logical approach to issues arising from human society.
From the above laymen and professional perception of development one can infer that development as a concept is a continuous change that impact meaningfully on all the ramifications of peoples lives. Okunna (2002:294A) cited in Nwodu and Ukozor (2003:2) summarizes the meaning of development this way “Development should bring change, this change should be for the better; the change should be for the benefit of the majority of the people; and the process should be participatory, that is, involve people as closely as possible.
It is form this angle that this project perceives development.
COMMUNICATION
Communication according to the ordinary man on the street means getting your ideas across or making yourself understood. These are not wrong, but in the context of this project it is much more than this.
Several communication scholars have tried to define communication from several perspectives: According to Darnce (1970) cited in Ndolo (1998:1) communication is the process by which we understand others and in term endeavour to be understood by them. it is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the total situation.
Agee et al, 1998 defines communication as the act of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another. In other words transmission of information, ideas, and attitudes to one or more of an individual’s senses of sight, sound, touch, taste or smell.
According to Onho (1991) communication is an activity or process that entails mutual sharing or exchange of ideas, information, feelings, emotions and reactions.
Common to all the above definitions is that communication is a process of understanding and sharing of ideas, feelings and meaning or managing of messages between people.
In the process of communication one can identify five basic elements. These elements are people, channel, messages, Noise and feedback. Without these elements there can be no communication.
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