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BLOOD PRESSURE CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Blood pressure and periods are not something that you would think have any relation to each other. Whether you have high blood pressure or are at healthy levels, it’s important to understand the numbers that your doctor measures at every doctor visit. These numbers are very important measurements of our health because they can indicate more serious conditions that have gone unnoticed. We examine how the menstrual cycle affects blood pressure levels and what that means for your overall health.
What Is Blood Pressure?
Blood pressure is the pressure of your blood in your circulatory system. It is often measured for diagnosis of certain conditions because it is related to the force and rate of your heartbeat and the width and elasticity of your arterial walls.
As your heart works to pump blood throughout your body, it forces the flow out through your arteries which carries it to other blood vessels. The arterial network through your circulatory system tapers off in size until they become tiny vessels, called capillaries. Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to the organs at the capillary level.
There are two types of blood pressure that are important to be aware of:
Systolic blood pressure: This refers to the pressure inside your arteries when your heart is pumping and circulating blood flow.
Diastolic blood pressure: Is the pressure inside your arteries when your heart is resting between heart beats.
Your doctor measures these two types at almost every visit to note if these two numbers have changed. A dramatic increase or decrease can indicate something is wrong and your doctor will instruct you how to manage your levels more effectively.
What Should Your Target Blood Pressure Be?
Your age and gender play key roles in what your target blood pressure should be, but a normal blood pressure would be recorded as something under 120/80 mmHg. Check the chart below to understand what your targets should be. Your doctor will give you more individual insights into your exact number, but this can be used to ask your doctor questions regarding your levels.
blood pressure chart
If your blood pressure levels are over 140/90, it’s known as high blood pressure, or hypertension. If you have blood pressure levels below 90/60, this is below normal blood pressure, also called hypotension.
Can Menstruation Cause High Blood Pressure?
We know that your blood pressure changes based on your age and gender, but does your period cause higher blood pressure when menstruating? According to a study reported by WebMD, 40 percent of women with moderate-to-severe pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) were more likely to develop high blood pressure than women with mild-to-no PMS symptoms.
There has not been a lot of research about the relationship between blood pressure and periods, but some studies have shown that blood pressure may increase during certain stages of the menstrual cycle. This occurs due to the spike of progesterone (female hormone) levels. This study also found that blood pressure was higher at the beginning of menstruation. This indicated that it’s common to have higher blood pressure before a period, rather than after or during.
How High Blood Pressure Impacts Women’s Health
High blood pressure is more prevalent in women compared to men, especially with age. Women may experience a disproportionate increase in their systolic blood pressure levels versus their diastolic levels around menopause or after. When women go through menopause, there is a stiffening of the blood vessels. This relates to Isolated Systolic Hypertension (ISH). ISH describes the pattern of high systolic reading and a normal systolic reading.
Other conditions that are specific to women who have high blood pressure are:
Stroke
Heart attack
Pregnancy issues
Kidney disease or failure
Atherosclerosis
It’s important to discuss your concerns with a doctor and make sure you fully understand your family’s medical history. Managing high blood pressure with lifestyle changes or medication can help reduce your risk of the above health conditions.
Hypertension and Uterine Fibroids
While the research into fibroids and their causes is not nearly as extensive as it should be, some studies looking into the relationship between fibroids and high blood pressure indicate a link between the two. A study on hypertension and the risk of uterine leiomyomata found that there is an increased risk of uterine fibroids linked to diastolic blood pressure levels. This increased risk is due to how high blood pressure impacts uterine smooth muscle tissue, similar to the development of atherosclerosis. For every 10-mmHg increase in diastolic blood pressure, the risk of developing fibroids increased 8% for those who did not use any blood pressure medications. While further research is required to confirm if fibroids cause high blood pressure, this study indicates that high blood pressure can increase your risk of developing fibroids.
Weight gain and the risk of fibroids are also related, much like how your weight can impact your blood pressure. Monitoring your weight and your blood pressure can help in predicting your uterine fibroid risk.
There may have been previous researches in this subject. This work gives further explanations and analysis in blood pressure changes during menstrual cycle
H0: There is no relationship between blood pressure changes and menstrual cycle
H1: There is a relationship between blood pressure changes and menstrual cycle
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THE IMPACT OF VIGILANTISM AND CRIME CONTROL IN CONTEMPORARY NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF GEZAWA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, KANO STATE, NIGERIA (2010-2015)
Abstract: The inability of the Nigerian Police Force to control the increasing wave of crime has led to proliferation of vigilante groups in contemporary Nigeria. This study was initiated to investigate the impact of vigilante groups on crime control and management in contemporary Nigeria, particularly in GEZAWA L.G.A of KANO STATE. One hundred and twenty (120) respondents were sampled from GEZAWA LOCAL GOVERNMENT Area of KANO STATE. Multi-stage, cluster and simple random sampling methods were used as the sampling techniques. Questionnaires were administered to respondents by six (2) research assistants whereas interviews were conducted with two (2) traditional rulers, chairman of Gezawa L.G.A 2 Commandants of vigilante group and 5 vigilante group members. The result indicated that Nigeria Police is ineffective with regard to crime control and vigilante groups in its current form sprang up to make up for this ineffectiveness and fill the gap of insecurity at grassroots level . It also showed that vigilante groups are gaining prominence as agents of crime control in contemporary Nigeria, particularly, Gezawa L.G.A of KANO STATE. The result equally revealed that vigilante group members are recruited and monitored through their communities and that they are effective in crime control. Also, the result indicated that the best way of solving the problem of crime in Nigeria is by increasing the activities of vigilante groups through training and support from local communities and Government. However, lack of working tools, poor funding, and lack of patrol vehicles are the major problems confronting vigilante groups. More so, based on the major findings, it was recommended that vigilante group members should operate within the frame work of law, needed to have support from both local communities and other relevant stake holders. Finally, security committees should be established at the local government level and these committees should meet periodically to discuss security matters in their areas and report back any issues of insecurity to the relevant security agencies for proper management and control of crime in the country.
Keywords: Vigilante group, Crime Control, Policing, Community Participation.
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SURVEY OF PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF ROLE AND ACCEPTANCE OF VIGILANTE SERVICE GROUPS AS AGENTS OF CRIME CONTROL IN ANAMBRA STATE, SOUTHEAST NIGERIA
Abstract
This research work investigated the roles, public acceptance and perceived shortcomings of Vigilante service groups in Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria. The study adopted cross-sectional survey design and was anchored on broken window theory (BWT) and structural strain theoretical platforms. A total of 600 study participants drawn through a combination of multi-stage and simple random sampling techniques responded to the quantitative tool (questionnaire). Data was also generated through qualitative tools. These were through four sessions of in-depth interview (IDI), and another four sessions of focus group discussions (FGD) with male and female gender at both urban and rural parts of the state. The study found that residents of the state saw the role of vigilante service groups in their area as that of partnering with the police in safeguarding life and property. It was also found that vigilante service groups were well accepted in the area. However, a major shortcoming of vigilante service groups which the study revealed is that they engage in unlawful arrest and detention of citizens. It was recommended among other things that members of the vigilante group be regularly trained and re-trained to make them knowledgeable and committed to their responsibilities without abusing privileges or infringing on the rights of citizen.
Keywords: Acceptance, Vigilante service groups, Crime control, police, informal policing structure
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ROLE OF VIGILANTE GROUPS IN CRIME PREVENTION AND CONTROL IN ILE-IFE, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA
Abstract
This study provided information on the role of community vigilante organisations in crime prevention and control in Ile–Ife. This was with a view to documenting and appraising various measures adopted in reducing criminal activities. The study identified the factors leading to the formation of community vigilante groups as recognised units of crime prevention in Ile-Ife and investigated measures deployed by community vigilante groups to fight and control criminal activities, as well as assessed the effectiveness of community vigilante groups in crime prevention and control. Qualitative method, demonstrated by the use of in-depth interviews guides, was employed to collect data from 58 key informants. The data were collected from residents of Ile Ife, and selected through stratified and purposive techniques. The study concluded that vigilante groups played an important role in crime prevention and control at the community level. Their role was/is complementary to the statutory function of the Nigeria Police Force.
Keywords: Community vigilante groups, crime prevention and control, local government area,
Nigeria Police Force, and traditional rulers.
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PUBLIC PERSEPTION OF THE SERVICES OF VIGILANTE GROUPS IN ANAMBRA STATE
Abstract
So much has always been said about the activities of the vigilante groups in Anambra State. The objective of this study therefore was to investigate the perception of the citizens of the State with regards to the activities of the vigilante groups in the State. The crosssectional survey design was employed for the study. 540 adults aged 18years and above were selected for the study using the multi-stage sampling technique. The structured questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data while Focused Group Discussion (FGD) and In-depth Interview guides were used to collect the qualitative data. The quantitative data were sorted, coded and analyzed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Univeriate and bivariate statistics were used to describe and interpret the quantitative data; while the qualitative data were analyzed using the theme-based method of content analysis. The study revealed that in spite of a number of shortcomings and limitations of the vigilante members, the citizens of the State are still very supportive to them for the services they render to ensure a crime free society. It was equally revealed that the efforts of the groups contribute towards a reasonable control of crime in the State. The study recommends among other things, consistent and regular training of the vigilante members in the State.
Key Words: Crime Control, Public Perception, Social Conditions, Social Services, Vigilante groups.
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PERSPECTIVES ON VIGILANTISM IN THE REPUBLIC OF ZIMBABWE
Abstract
Vigilantism, a phenomenon which is premised on a model of retributive instant justice, negatively affects the moral social fabric. Its pervasiveness traverses local communities and beyond, and involves diverse methods by diverse perpetrators. Prattern (2008) posits that vigilantism, with its symptomatic culture of violence, has the propensity to unseat duly elected governments. Surprisingly, in Zimbabwe, little attention has been given to the threat posed by vigilante activity, yet it is a brutal indictment on policing as well as on the criminal justice system, (Haefele, 2008). This study, a descriptive survey in which 350 participants were invited to participate, investigated the causes of vigilantism in Mbare high density suburb, Harare. The study found that, public belief in a just world, police corruption, public mistrust in the judicial system, political factors, and challenges posed by a downward economic trajectory were some of the contributory causes of vigilantism in Mbare. Recommendations were that: police and the judiciary need to address their real and practical failings, including effectively dealing with allegations of corruption within their ranks; Government must support policing initiatives as well as improve infrastructure; Vigilantism needs to be prioritized and tackled as a form of crime; and a culture of violence must be delegitimized through inculcating a human rights culture in the citizens.
Keywords: Vigilantism, crime, violence
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OSPAC VIGILANTE OUTFIT AND CRIME CONTROL IN EMOHUA AND ETCHE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF RIVERS STATE
ABSTRACT
This study examined OSPAC vigilante and crime control in Emohua and Etche Local Government Areas. The study adopted three (3) research questions and objectives and they guided the study. The study adopted community implant theory propounded by Rosenbaum (1987) to support the use of OSPAC vigilante on crime control. The descriptive survey research design was used. The study population is about 633,700 people, with a sample size of 400. The purposive sampling technique was used. The method of data collection utilized both primary and secondary sources. However, simple percentages, mean and standard deviation were used for data analysis. The study found out that the failure of the Nigerian security in curbing crime, high level of poverty, lack of quality leadership, cult clashes for supremacy, high level of unemployment and desire to get rich quick are factors responsible for insecurity. Further findings showed that since the inception of OSPAC vigilante security in Emohua and Etche local government areas, there have been crime reductions in the areas as people go about their daily activities. The study recommended that despite reductions in crime in Emohua and Etche by OSPAC vigilante; there is a need for its sustainability, and one way to achieve this would be to provide employment, entrepreneurship education and training.
KEYWORDS: OSPAC, Crime, Vigilante, Crime Control, Insecurity
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INSECURITY: RETHINKING COMMUNITY POLICING AND CRIME MANAGEMENT IN IKEJA AREA OF LAGOS STATE
Abstract
The provision of adequate security is a social pre-requisite for the survival of any society. However, in countries such as Nigeria, the emergence and growth of community policing has thrived on the inadequacies, shortcomings and several inadequacies attributed to formal policing systems. The Nigerian police force have been severely criticised for several atrocities, including its inability to curtail crimes as such many people have turned to community policing. This study therefore examines the community policing and crime management in Ikeja in terms of its forms, roles, efficacy and challenges in the management of crime. The study adopted the survey research design. Data for the study was collected through the quantitative method from a total of 400 respondents selected through the multi-stage sampling technique. Findings from the study showed that the use of community policing as a security agent in Ikeja has led to a moderate decline in crime rates. The study also found that the most profound reasons for the adoption of community policing are police ineffectiveness and increases in crime wave. Other reasons found by the study include lack of police presence. Findings from the study also showed that members of the Ikeja community identify the roles of community policing in crime prevention and perceive it as a positive compared to the roles performed by the NPF. However, as indicated by the study, community policing is beset by challenges that affect its performance, these include; institutional constraints, police perception, god-father-ism and poor funding. Based on the study findings, the study recommends a restructuring of the NPF that considers grey areas such as police public image and the lack of public trust and partnership.
Keywords: Security, Community Policing, Crime management, prevention.
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IMPROPER STRUCTURE OF THE NIGERIAN POLICE AND THE QUEST FOR STATE POLICE: LESSONS FROM VIGILANTE SERVICES
Abstract
The quest for the establishment of state police in Nigeria has ascended from pedestrian to national discourse and has no doubt generated a lot of controversy as to the role assigned to the Nigerian police formation by the constitution and the way and manner they have been performing these roles. Consequent upon this, the increasing spate of violence that has been unleashed on the citizens of this nation and the resultant deaths has heightened the clamour for state police in Nigeria. This is as a result of the failure of the centrally controlled police formation in Nigeria to provide the needed security to Nigerians, leaving them at the mercy of criminal elements in the society. It is against this background that almost all the states of the federation established their own security outfits to protect their citizens from incessant attacks. It is on this premise that this paper discusses the reasons why there has been continued call for the establishment of state police in Nigeria. The paper also recommends ways to restructure the Nigerian police for better service delivery. Keywords: Governance, policing, state police, vigilante services.
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CRIME, VIGILANTISM, AND ELECTORAL VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA.
ABSTRACT: High rate of crime is always a concern to any society. The transition to democratic rule in May 1999 was accompanied with sudden rise in crime. There were attempts by individuals, groups, communities and the government to address the rising crime wave across the country. One of such response was the establishments of vigilante groups by the citizens. Communities and neighbourhoods formed vigilantes to protect their lives and properties. The co-option of these vigilante groups during elections by politicians to assist in the manipulations of elections contributes to violence and other criminal activities. They serve as ready army that can be deployed by politicians during elections for their electoral gains. The constant squabbles and factionalisation in almost every „vigilante‟ group across the country can be attributed to political influence and interference. This study is an attempt to ascertain the roles of vigilante groups during elections vis-a-vis the fight against crime.
KEY WORDS: Vigilantism, crime, violence and election.
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