BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
JOHN BROOMES LEGACY AND ETHICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP NAVIGATING RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Abstract
John Broome’s legacy in environmental ethics provides a profound foundation for examining the responsibilities of environmental stewardship in the context of climate change. This study explores Broome’s contributions to the ethical discourse on environmental responsibility and evaluates their implications for contemporary climate action. By analyzing Broome’s philosophical arguments, particularly his views on the moral obligations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the intergenerational equity, the research aims to elucidate the ethical imperatives that should guide individuals, corporations, and governments in addressing climate change.
The study employs a comprehensive review of Broome’s seminal works and related ethical theories to highlight the critical aspects of his legacy. It examines the practical applications of his ethical principles in current climate policies and initiatives. The analysis focuses on the ethical frameworks for balancing economic development with environmental sustainability, the moral significance of preserving natural resources, and the necessity of global cooperation in mitigating climate impacts.
Through this examination, the research underscores the relevance of Broome’s ethical guidelines in shaping effective environmental stewardship strategies. It advocates for a renewed commitment to ethical principles in climate discourse and policy-making, emphasizing the need for responsible actions that safeguard the environment for future generations.
The findings contribute to the broader field of environmental ethics by reaffirming the importance of moral considerations in environmental decision-making processes. The study concludes with recommendations for integrating Broome’s ethical insights into practical strategies for achieving sustainable development and combating climate change, highlighting the enduring relevance of his legacy in guiding contemporary and future environmental stewardship.
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Environmental stewardship and ethical responsibility have become increasingly significant in the discourse surrounding climate change. John Broome, a prominent philosopher and environmentalist, has made substantial contributions to the understanding of these concepts. His legacy revolves around the ethical implications of climate change and the moral responsibilities of individuals and societies in mitigating its impacts. As the world grapples with the accelerating effects of climate change, Broome’s insights provide a vital framework for navigating these challenges.
Broome’s work emphasizes the ethical dimensions of environmental stewardship, advocating for a collective responsibility to protect and preserve the environment for future generations. He argues that climate change poses not only a scientific and economic challenge but also a profound moral dilemma. The ethical considerations he raises include issues of justice, fairness, and the moral duty to prevent harm to others, particularly the most vulnerable populations who are disproportionately affected by environmental degradation.
In light of Broome’s contributions, this study aims to explore his legacy and the ethics of environmental stewardship in the context of climate change. It examines the philosophical foundations of his arguments, the practical implications of his ideas, and the ways in which his work can inform current and future efforts to address climate change.
In the face of escalating climate change, the call for robust ethical frameworks to guide environmental stewardship has never been more urgent. John Broome, a distinguished philosopher and environmental ethicist, has significantly contributed to this discourse, offering profound insights into the moral imperatives of addressing climate change. His legacy emphasizes the intertwined nature of ethics and environmental stewardship, urging societies to acknowledge their responsibilities not just to the current generation but also to future ones.
Climate change presents a multifaceted challenge that extends beyond scientific and economic realms into profound moral territory. The devastating impacts of climate change—ranging from extreme weather events and loss of biodiversity to social and economic disruptions—disproportionately affect the world’s most vulnerable populations. This inequality raises crucial ethical questions about justice, responsibility, and the obligations of those contributing most to environmental degradation toward those suffering its worst consequences.
John Broome’s work navigates these ethical complexities, advocating for a holistic approach to environmental stewardship that incorporates justice, fairness, and moral duty. His arguments challenge individuals, governments, and organizations to rethink their roles and responsibilities in mitigating climate change and promoting sustainability. By framing environmental issues within a moral context, Broome’s legacy offers a powerful narrative that compels action and accountability.
The exploration of Broome’s ethical framework is particularly relevant in today’s context, where there is a pressing need for sustainable development strategies that balance economic growth with environmental preservation. This study delves into John Broome’s contributions, examining the philosophical underpinnings of his work and their practical implications for contemporary environmental policies. It seeks to illuminate how Broome’s ideas can guide current and future efforts to address climate change, promoting a more just and sustainable world.
Through this exploration, the study aims to bridge the gap between ethical theory and practical application, providing actionable insights for policymakers, environmentalists, and the broader public. By understanding and embracing the ethics of environmental stewardship as articulated by John Broome, society can better navigate the responsibilities that come with climate change and move toward more equitable and effective solutions.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite widespread recognition of the urgent need to address climate change, there remains a significant gap between awareness and action. This gap is often attributed to conflicting interests, economic considerations, and political inertia. However, underlying these factors is a fundamental ethical question: What are our responsibilities towards the environment and future generations?
John Broome’s work provides a crucial perspective on this question, highlighting the moral imperatives that should guide our actions in the face of climate change. Yet, there is a need for a more comprehensive understanding of how his ethical framework can be applied in practice. This study seeks to bridge this gap by analyzing Broome’s legacy and the ethical principles he advocates, with the aim of providing actionable insights for policymakers, environmentalists, and the general public.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objective of this study is to examine John Broome’s legacy and his contributions to the ethics of environmental stewardship in the context of climate change. Specifically, the study aims to:
Analyze the philosophical foundations of John Broome’s work on environmental ethics.
Explore the practical implications of Broome’s ethical framework for addressing climate change.
Assess the relevance and applicability of Broome’s ideas in contemporary environmental policy and practice.
Identify strategies for integrating ethical considerations into environmental decision-making processes.
1.4 Research Questions
To achieve the objectives outlined above, the study will address the following research questions:
What are the key philosophical principles underlying John Broome’s work on environmental ethics?
How can Broome’s ethical framework be applied to current climate change challenges?
In what ways can Broome’s ideas inform and influence contemporary environmental policy and practice?
What strategies can be developed to incorporate ethical considerations into environmental stewardship and decision-making?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant for several reasons. Firstly, it contributes to the academic understanding of John Broome’s legacy and the ethical dimensions of environmental stewardship. Secondly, it provides practical insights for policymakers and environmental practitioners seeking to incorporate ethical considerations into their work. By highlighting the moral imperatives associated with climate change, the study aims to foster a greater sense of responsibility and urgency in addressing environmental challenges.
Moreover, the study underscores the importance of integrating ethical principles into environmental decision-making processes. As the impacts of climate change become more pronounced, it is crucial to ensure that actions taken to mitigate and adapt to these impacts are guided by considerations of justice, fairness, and moral duty. This approach not only enhances the effectiveness of environmental policies but also ensures that they are aligned with broader societal values and goals.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on John Broome’s contributions to the ethics of environmental stewardship and their relevance to contemporary climate change challenges. It examines his philosophical writings, ethical principles, and the practical implications of his work. The scope includes an analysis of how Broome’s ideas can be applied to current environmental policies and practices, with a particular emphasis on strategies for integrating ethical considerations into decision-making processes.
1.7 Definition of Key Terms
Environmental Stewardship: The responsible management and care of the environment, ensuring its sustainability for current and future generations.
Ethics: The branch of philosophy that deals with questions of morality, including what is right and wrong, just and unjust.
Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions, primarily caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
Moral Responsibility: The duty to act rightly and ethically, considering the impacts of one’s actions on others and the environment.
Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
1.8 Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides the introduction, including the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, and definitions of key terms. Chapter Two reviews the relevant literature on environmental ethics and John Broome’s contributions, exploring various theoretical perspectives and empirical findings. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology, including the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. Chapter Four presents the findings and analysis of the data collected, while Chapter Five provides a summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations based on the study.
By examining John Broome’s legacy and the ethics of environmental stewardship, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the moral dimensions of climate change and to provide practical guidance for integrating ethical considerations into environmental policy and practice.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL (S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
OR you drop them on our WhatsApp, 08137701720
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
A CRITIQUE OF PETER SINGER’S SPECIESISM
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Peter Singer, a prominent philosopher and ethicist, has been a leading voice in the discourse on animal ethics. His influential work, particularly in the book “Animal Liberation,” challenges traditional views on the ethical treatment of animals and introduces the concept of speciesism. Singer argues against the arbitrary privileging of human interests over those of other sentient beings solely based on their species. This study aims to provide a critical examination and comprehensive critique of Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The ethical treatment of animals has been a subject of profound debate and contention. Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism has been instrumental in shaping discussions surrounding the moral consideration of non-human animals. However, the very foundation of Singer’s argument, as well as its practical implications, has faced criticism and scrutiny. This study seeks to critically appraise Singer’s concept of speciesism, exploring its strengths, weaknesses, and implications for ethical theory and animal welfare practices.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objectives of this research are:
To critically analyze Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism, elucidating its theoretical foundations and key components.
To assess the strengths and weaknesses of Singer’s arguments against speciesism in the context of ethical theory and animal welfare practices.
To explore alternative perspectives and critiques presented by scholars and ethicists regarding Singer’s stance on speciesism.
To evaluate the practical implications and applications of Singer’s concept of speciesism in influencing public attitudes, policies, and practices related to animal welfare.
1.4 Research Questions
To guide the critique of Peter Singer’s speciesism, the study addresses the following research questions:
What are the theoretical foundations and key components of Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Singer’s arguments against speciesism in the context of ethical theory and animal welfare practices?
How do scholars and ethicists present alternative perspectives and critiques of Singer’s stance on speciesism?
What are the practical implications and applications of Singer’s concept of speciesism in influencing public attitudes, policies, and practices related to animal welfare?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research holds significance in contributing to the ongoing dialogue on animal ethics and the moral consideration of non-human animals. By critically appraising Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism, the study aims to provide nuanced insights that can inform ethical theory, influence policy discussions, and contribute to the evolving landscape of animal welfare practices.
1.6 Scope and Limitations
The study focuses specifically on Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism as presented in his seminal work “Animal Liberation” and subsequent writings. The scope encompasses an in-depth analysis of Singer’s arguments, critiques, and alternative perspectives, emphasizing their theoretical and practical implications. Limitations include the potential for varied interpretations of Singer’s work and the dynamic nature of ethical debates surrounding animal welfare.
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
The thesis is organized into distinct chapters to facilitate a logical flow of information. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of literature, delving into key concepts, theories, and critiques within the realm of animal ethics and Singer’s speciesism. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology, detailing the approach to data collection, sampling, and analysis. Subsequent chapters present the findings, analyze the data, draw conclusions, and provide recommendations for future research and practical applications.
In conclusion, this introductory chapter establishes the context, objectives, and significance of the study, laying the groundwork for a detailed critique of Peter Singer’s concept of speciesism.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPICS BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COST N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR
YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08137701720
WHATSAPP US ON: 08137701720
JEAN PAUL ON THE NOTION OF FREEDOM-A CRITIQUE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Jean-Paul Sartre, one of the most well-known and influential Western philosophers in the 20th century, is an exponent of and a great contributor to Existentialism (Norris, 2018). From 1940 when he was imprisoned for nine months in Germany, he started reflecting on the meaning of freedom. Initially published in freestanding essays and later constituting one of the most significant chapters in the famous book What Is Literature, “Why Write?” is an essay in which Sartre addresses his theory on freedom.
The text starts with the existentialist assumption that “human reality is a „revealer‟”; that is, the individual reveals being by introducing relationships and order into the natural arrangement and imposing unity on the diversified world. Upon such an “inner certainty of being „revealers‟” is also added the consciousness that the man is inessential to the thing revealed. To seek the essentiality, we turn to artistic creation. Consequently, we come to the dialect that in the perception, the object is essential and the subject inessential while in the creation it‟s quite the reverse. The operation of writing is used to further illustrate this dialect and an act named reading is necessarily involved as the dialectical correlative of writing, for only the reader, not the writer can reveal the sleeping words objectively through foreseeing and waiting. In other words, one doesn‟t write for oneself. Therefore, the fulfillment of a work requires the joint effort of both the author and the reader. The former services as a producer while the other a revealer. Hence there is no art except for and by others.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
As for reading, in fact it engages both perception and creation. In the course of catching the connotation of words, the reader simultaneously makes reinvention from the originally inexpressible words. In brief, “reading is directed creation” and for the reader, “all is to do and all is already done”.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Research survey was conducted among philosophy scholars from philosophy departments among selected tertiary institutions
METHODOLOGY
Surveys were conducted, questionnaires were distributed randomly among scholars from selected tertiary institutions.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This work provides more references for future researchers
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERICAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
http://graduateprojects.com.ng/
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
THE RELEVANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
This work discusses the relevance of philosophy of education in technological development in Nigeria. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among people from selected states in Nigeria. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that philosophy of education have a strong and significant positive impact in technological development in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
THE NIGERIA POLICE AND NATIONAL SECURITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
Abstract
This work discusses the Nigeria police and national security: a philosophical analysis. Security of life and property are of the primary purpose of government. 1999 Constitution emphasize that the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of the government”. The government through the Nigeria police fulfil its obligation of security the nation. This project examines the Nigeria police and the challenges of security in Nigeria. The project adopted survey method. 200 respondents were randomly selected from two local government areas in Rivers state namely; Eleme and Obiakpor. Frequency and simple percentage were used to analyse the data. The findings reveal that poverty, unemployment, leadership and religion are the root causes of insecurity in Nigeria. The project recommends that the effort of the Nigeria police alone cannot curb the rate of insecurity in the nation.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
There is no doubt that the spate of insecurity in the country is alarming. There are several security challenges which cut across the nooks and crannies of the country. The most common one is the terrorists’ attacks in major parts of the Northern region. This according to Achumba, Ighomereho & Akpor-Robaro (2013:79) has made national security threat to be a major issue for the government and has prompted huge allocation of the national budget to security. The rate of violent crimes such as terrorism, kidnapping, armed robbery and banditry, suicide bombing, religious killing, ethnic clashes, politically-motivated killing and other forms of criminal activities in the country is becoming increasingly regular occurrence that characterised life in the nation. Nigeria has consistently ranked low in the Global Peace Index (GPI, 2012), signifying a worsened state of insecurity in the country (Achumba, Ighomereho & Akpor-Robaro, 2013). In the same vein, Onifade, Imhonopi and Urim (2013) assert that the challenges of insecurity has assumed formidable dimensions forcing the country’s political and economic managers and indeed the entire nation to the rue, the loss of their loved ones, investment and absence of safety in most parts of the country. The rate at which innocent blood is wasted on a daily basis and the display of bottled-up frustration by the citizens remains a cause for concern. Nwaze (2011) explains that the rate of blood shed during the Nigeria civil war is a Child’s play compared to the terrorist attacks in few months.
The problem of insecurity in the country seems to have grown beyond government capacity. Uhunmwuangho & Aluforo (2011) in Achumba, Ighomereho & Akpor-Robaro (2013)are of the view that the efforts of the government have not yielded enough positive result. In looking at the causes of this abnormality, Onifade, Imhonopi and Urim(2013)’posited that there is connection between increasing ethnic hate, religious bigotry, political rivalry, and a growing population of disgruntled citizens in the country who feet short-changed and having limited or no access to the common inheritance. The observation of Egwu (2001) in Onifade, Imhonopi and Urim (2013) express the fact that the primordial tendencies of various eruption of various ethnic militias and the pre-ponderant religious fundamentalism in places, given expression to by some sections of the dominant religious establishments in Nigeria have inevitably aggravated the scale and propensity of insecurity and widened its scope in various ramifications.
In addition to the above revelations, various scholars such as Adelakun, (1990); Egwu, (1990); Odekunle, (2005); Aderinde, (2007); Arinze, (2010); and Ajibade, Olapade and Erinosho, (2011) pointed out same factors that are responsible for the spate of insecurity in Nigeria. They argued that the response of the Nigerian state to the crisis of the mass unemployment and fuel crisis have led to the worsening of the crime situation in Nigeria. Also, poverty, unemployment declining income and low savings, which has pushed many retrenched people into a struggle for survival, high rate of inflation, political intolerance on the part of the ruling party as pointed out have contributed not in a small measure to the rate of insecurity in the country.
One of the primary purposes of government of any nation is the provision of security. The role is emphasized in the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of the government” (Section 14(2) (b). In performing this role, the government delegate the duty of maintenance of internal security to the Nigeria police. The Nigeria police are by law saddled with the responsibility of preventing and detecting crime, preserving peace and order and enforcing all laws and regulations. They are expected to perform these roles efficiently and effectively. with the high rate of insecurity in the country, the question that borders every mind is whether the police performed these roles as expected of them? Majority of the people are of the opinion that the Nigeria police falls below their standards of performance. They are seeing as a toothless dog that can only bark but not bite. Odekunle, (2014) argued that there is no need to prove the non-performance of the Nigeria police in the present condition. Rather, what is needed is the identification of the major inadequacies, problems and obstacles that are responsible for the situation. The Nigeria police are part and parcel of the civil society. Therefore, aside from other numerous problems which have incapacitate their performance over the years, they have human problems that not only aggravate its material insufficiencies, but are also of tremendous adverse import on its general performance from one day to the next (Odekunle,2004). Poor funding for major development of the force such as training, logistics, arms and ammunitions etc. and under-utilization of funds are cogs in the wheel of adequate police performance. Morality among the police is not a virtue. Alemika (1999) discuss that corruption and extortion among the police is a serious issue because they are expected to be moral as law enforcement agents. In the quest of officers to meet up with mate in the society they ended up slaughtering efficient and effective performance of duty on the slab of corruptions and extortions. Consequently, the project aim towards contributing to various studies on the activities of Nigeria police, its challenges and the challenges of insecurity in the country.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The persistent security problems and the inability of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) in ensuring security and safety of life and property in the country are worrisome. The sources of security challenges in the country are numerous and cannot be blamed on one part of the system alone. They vary from the government to the police down to the people in the society.
On the part of the police, there are many inadequacies and problems which stand as obstacles responsible for its abysmal performance. Most Nigerians describe police as a motley crowd of lazy, inefficient, corrupt uniformed men and women contributing to the perpetrating of crimes such as mass killing, intimidation, rape, extrajudicial killings/summary execution and other heinous crimes against citizens they are paid to protect ( Uhunmwuangho and Aluforo, 2011). According to Ikeji (2013) that the escalation of violence in the north of Nigeria perpetrated by Boko Haram today is linked with the police extra-judicial killing of the leader of the group, “Mohammed Yusuf” in July 2009 in Borno State.
It is also common with the police to falsely label innocent people as armed robbers, while the real criminals are working freely in the society doing what they know to do best. They falsified post mortem result and to worsen the matter, people either criminals or none criminal disappear from there custody without good explanations and families of the innocent victims are faced with extortion.
The Nigeria police Force (2008) in there annual report noted that the police is handicapped because of combination of factors that plagued them, among which are; lack of resources, poor government support, poor condition of service, lack of appropriate and adequate training and illequipped workforce. Coped with this are the issue of police extortion and corruption and other vices common among the police system which contributes to their lack of efficiency. Alemika (1999) posit that police corruption is a serious issue because they are expected to be moral as law-enforcement agents. If the police which were employed and catered for with the peoples money to protect and detect crimes are themselves corrupt and also a party to crimes, then the society is at the mercy and grace of the criminal. The above among many others contribute to the Police and the challenges of insecurity in the country.
1.3 Objectives of the study
The main objective is of the study is the Nigeria Police and the Challenges of Security in Nigeria and the specific objectives are to;
1. Examine connection(s) between police inefficiency and insecurity in Nigeria.
2. Analysis the factors that contribute to insecurity in the country.
3. Examine the causes/challenges facing the police force. Research Questions
1. Is there any connection(s) between police inefficiency and insecurity in Nigeria.
2. Are there factors that contribute to insecurity in Nigeria?
3. What are the causes of challenges facing Nigeria police ability to curb insecurity?
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
AN EXAMINATION OF MEANING OF INTUITION AS RECOLLECTION IN PLATO’S EPISTEMOLOGY
ABSTRACT
This research work aim to examine the meaning of intuition as recollection in Plato’s epistemology. Plato’s epistemology. The main problem concerns the rationality of intuitive knowledge. Plato is the heir of the Parmenidean doctrinal tradition of being and cognition. According to him, intuition is the immediate perceiving of ideas. This may be supernatural intuition or rational intuition. The first is perceiving ideas seen before birth, the second is recollection of knowledge or cognition of ideas in the mind. The aim of intuitive knowledge is the definition of the essence. Plotinus is the successor to Plato’s theory of supernatural intuition. Plato used intuition to formulate the first principles of science or to define the goals of activity. Each type is characterized by common features, such as directness, comprehensiveness of cognition and obviousness. There are differences between the types of intuition. First of all, they concern whether the object is natural or supernatural, its inter-subjectivity, and the sources of intuitive cognition. In the case of inter-subjectivity,
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Science, or more generally knowledge, is an organized set of propositions. Their arrangement, broadly speaking, is that particular propositions from the set are justified by propositions formerly accepted which are substantiated by those accepted before them. In every process of justification it is proved that at the end of the set, there is a proposition which does not have its reason in another proposition. Thus some primary propositions, accepted as a consequence of direct cognition, form the basis of every kind of knowledge. Intuition is one of its types. In antiquity, it was perceived as the most valuable way of cognition, for the pre–eminence of intellectual cognition over empirical experience and the pre–eminence of direct over indirect cognition were recognized. Therefore, a purely rational and direct method would be ideal. In Greek philosophical texts, the terms nous or noesis were used to refer to what we today define as intuition. However, this does not mean that nous and intuition are the same; for nous is used to indicate mind, reason, thinking, wisdom, the soul, and even the heart – it has thus a broader range of meaning. Although it was primarily used to denote only direct sensory cognition, with time its semantic content was broader (Fritz von K., 1952)); Frame D.(1978); Nagy G(1983). In philosophy, it is used with cognitive, ontic, and moral meanings. Intuition is one of the functions of nous, one could say a primary function, in which I am interested in this paper.
A fundamental question related to the issue of intuition concerns its rationality. From today’s point of view, when we accept weak rationality conditions of cognition – that is an inter-subjective communicability and verifiability – we face the problem of the value of intuitive cognition. How can intuitive cognition be intelligibly expounded and supported? These issues were discussed in theories proposed by the ancient philosophers and in the beginnings of the development of intuitive cognition theory. The aim of this paper is to present the concept of direct intellectual cognition during the initial stages of the development of cognition theory and to analyze the function that it performed in the contemporary theory of knowledge. The objects of my analysis and description are, primarily, Plato’s and Aristotle’s theories of cognition because, first, they focused on previous philosophers’ opinions and, second, they exerted a considerable impact on the whole of philosophy and future science. It is impossible not to refer to those philosophers whose theories influenced in a significant way both Plato and the Stagirite, or were continuations of their thoughts leaving their mark on philosophy and even theology of future centuries.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It is widely held amongst philosophers that their practice makes use of appeals to intuition. Numerous examples abound: Gettier, Edmund L.(1963), in epistemology, trolley problems in ethics, the Chinese room argument in the philosophy of mind, and the list goes on. Clearly, intuitions have a significant role in contemporary philosophy. But what exact role do they play? And what role ought they play? In part, these questions depend on what intuitions are, and what philosophical inquiry aims to achieve. Though there is no consensus concerning the role and nature of intuitions, nor an agreement concerning the aims of philosophical inquiry, there is a worry that shadows these uncertainties. In the field of experimental philosophy, philosophers conducted a series of experiments about our intuitions and what they tell us (in the hope of learning more about their role and nature). The results were surprising. The first set of findings present our intuitions as diverse. In a study conducted by Jonathan Weinberg, Stephen Stitch, and Shaun Nichols (2001), the authors advance the claim that our intuitions are sensitive to our cultural background. Intuitions vary across cultures. The second set of findings present our intuitions as sensitive.
Intuitions vary not only across cultures but within cultures. People who share the same cultural background have intuitions that are at odds with one another. In addition, our intuitions also vary at the individual level – i.e. within the subject. Our intuitions may change over time given our. In one example, they ask participants from Western and Eastern backgrounds what their intuitions are surrounding a case of whether an agent, Bob, knows or merely believes that his friend, Jill, drives an American car. They foundthat 26% of Western subjects judge that Bob knows while 56% of Eastern subjects judge that Bob knows.exposure to certain content, the way in which the content is presented,3 and our relation to said content (Adleberg, Toni, Morgan Thompson, and Eddy Nahmias, 2014; Alexander, Joshua, Ronald Mallon, and Jonathan M. Weinberg, 2010; Alexander, Joshua and Jonathan M. Weinberg, 2007). Of course our intuitions are diverse and sensitive to various factors. In fact, we want them to be. However, what the experimental philosophers show is something more serious than simple diversity and sensitivity. Their experiments demonstrate that our intuitions appear to be influenced by factors irrelevant to the situation that matters. We want our intuitions to track the salient features of a case. But if philosophical inquiry employs intuitions and our intuitions appear to be sensitive to irrelevant factors, we need a way of understanding intuition’s proper place in philosophy. Call this the restrictionist challenge. Joshua Alexander states:
The real challenge lies not just in the fact that intuitions are not wholly reliable, but also in the fact that we know so little about them. We lack the resources needed to explain problematic intuitional sensitivity and, in return, struggle to understand its dimensions, to identify strategies for how to compensate for it, and to predict where it will appear. What is really needed, then, is a general, systematic understanding of philosophical intuitions. By coming to better understand what intuitions are, where they come from, and what factors influence them, we can better understand what role they play in philosophical practice (2012, 71-72). So far, so good. We have been able to establish that there is another form of intuition that figures prominently in and outside of philosophy. This form of intuition is one that is constitutive of a judgment. Also, it appears to serve a practical role. But from this, one may raise two objections or worries concerning its role. The first worry is metaphysical. In the moral case, we are told that intuition can disclose to us what the morally right course of action is. But what kind of thing is moral rightness? In the case of a natural property, such as mass or shape, we know exactly what is involved in determining whether something has that property, but the case of moral rightness is very different. We cannot point to the properties of rightness in an agent’s action and say “there it is!”. Does the notion of intuition really help illuminate this problem? Or is it rather that, operating with a metaphysically strange view of rightness as a peculiar property of “ought-to-bedoneness”, we find ourselves positing “intuition” as the means by which we grasp the presence of this strange property. But this just explains the strange by the even stranger.
The second worry is epistemological. It arises from the fact that moral agents often disagree on what the right course of action is. If we cannot determine the rightness or goodness of an act except by appeal to intuition, then how are we able to verify our disputes concerning the issue? In a case where morally adept agents disagree about what to do can all that be said is simply that they have different intuitions? Objections of this kind have long been made against intuitionism (Warnock 1967). If intuition is supposed to enable us to discern moral properties and their significance for action, are we not positing a realm of mysterious non-natural normative properties and an equally mysterious technique for determining their presence and relevance? (Frankena 1963, 86-87). Why should we posit these non-natural normative properties if we can make sense of this phenomena in simpler and more natural terms? McDowell, John (1979), would strongly resist this interpretation, arguing that there is nothing mysterious in the idea that moral knowledge is non-codifiable and involves sensitivity to the salient features of particular cases. After all, those features are not mysterious: that she is in pain, that it would be stealing, that it would embarrass him, that it was disloyal… are all morally relevant properties that can constitute reasons for action. We do not need special powers to discern such properties and why they matter, or so they argue (and this is why McDowell and Dancy deliberately avoid using the term “intuition”, with its connotations of mystery).
McDowell and Dancy (1979), insist that their views do not saddle us with dubious metaphysics and epistemology. For all that, however, neither of them does much to help us make sense of the distinctive kind of judgment involved in moral decision-making. We are still left appealing to the concept of intuition or something like it. In the next chapter, I attempt to provide a fuller account of the nature and role of intuition by drawing on the notion of “tacit knowledge”.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To examine the concept of intuition.
2. To identify characteristics of intuitive judgment.
3. To examine preliminaries to the theory of intuition, or Parmenides’s path of enlightenment.
4. To examine the epistemological role of intuitions in moral Philography.
5. To examine the relationship between supernatural and rational intuitions in Plato epistemology.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
1. What is intuition?
2. What are the characteristics of intuitive judgment?
3. What are preliminaries to the theory of intuition, or Parmenides’s path of enlightenment?
4. epistemological role of intuitions in Moral Philography?
5. To examine the relationship between supernatural and rational intuitions in Plato epistemology.
1.9 DEFINITION OF THE STUDY
Intuition: Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was acquired. Different writers give the word “intuition” a great variety of different meanings, ranging from direct access to unconscious knowledge, unconscious cognition, inner sensing, inner insight to unconscious pattern-recognition and the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
]]>BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MARXIST DOCTRINE OF ALIENATION AND IT’S RELEVANCE TO THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY
ABSTRACT
One of the fundamental issues of most socio-political debate in recent years is ALIENATION, which means “estrangement”. This essay will elucidate the doctrine of alienation in its origin until the era of Karl Marx. Much attention will be focused on the way Marx conceived alienation, its causes, types and effects. Attempt will be made to use this doctrine to explicate the circumstances of the majority of Nigerians, who are predominantly poor.
The approach will be a theoretical exposition of K. Marx theory of alienation. An attempt will be made to juxtapose the arguments for and against the Marxist doctrine of alienation, and how it tallies with the Nigerian society. This will aim at correcting the defective systems of the Nigerian society. Here it will be explained, whether the suffering and the inhuman conditions that most Nigerians pass through can be termed, “alienation” following Marx theory. If this doctrine is applied to the Nigerian society, the question will then be; how does the Nigerian system alienates its citizens?
The purpose of this essay, is to show whether there is any connections between the Marxist doctrine of alienation and the condition of the average Nigerian worker. Here, I will examine the solution proffered by Karl Marx. I will also show that though his alienation doctrine seems to elucidate the conditions of many Nigerians, the causes and solution proffered by Marx cannot be adapted to the Nigerian society. To put it precisely, the solution proffered by Karl Marx is not workable nor attainable in the Nigerian system. Finally, I shall propose that alienation can only be mitigated within the context of solidarity.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
It has become increasingly common to hear life in the present age characterized in term of alienation1 The concept of alienation has become an almost obsessive concern in areas of socio-political philosophy, as a condition of man in this modern age. The subject matter has become the isolated individual. The individual is estranged from other people, the fruit of his labour, and his self. The alienating condition of modern man shows that we are confronted by the symptoms of a morbid and acute social sickness.
In this present Nigerian society, there has been lamentations of oppressions exploitation and dehumanization. Nigerians are exploited by fellow Nigerians, hence, M. I. Akimbo exclaimed, “we have done very estimable evil to ourselves in this land”.2 Thus, a lot of thinkers now term Nigerian workers as alienated beings. The question, which seems to be cropping up, is whether some Nigerians are really alienated and marginalized?
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The greatest ontological evil that can happen to being in its essence, existence and expression is alienation.3 There has been various attempts to interpret the conditions of the Nigerian workers following the basic tenets of the Marxist doctrine of alienation, over the years. The worst part, is the attempt to proffer solutions to the alienating conditions of Nigerian workers following the pattern of Karl Marx’s-revolution.
The problems created by alienation are multifarious. There is a problem of man’s inhumanity to man dehumanization, as exemplified in the way the rich treat the poor in Nigeria. There is also the estrangement of some Nigerians; from the fruits of their labour, from friends and from family. Added to the above is the exploitation of the resources in the Niger Delta to develop the northern region of Nigeria. This exploitation is in all regions; employers exploiting employees, the rulers exploiting the ruled, the clergy men exploiting their members, some lecturers in the university exploiting their students and so on. How do we reconcile alienation with global call for freedom and human dignity? How can man exercise himself fully in a society that is characterized with all forms of alienation.
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aim of this research among others is to assess the doctrine of alienation and the applications of the solutions proffered with reference to Karl Marx, and why this solutions cannot be applied to the Nigerian society. An attempt will be made to give an elucidation of a workable solution to address the alienating conditions in Nigeria.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The significance of this research work is bipolar, firstly, it will serve as assessment of the much esteemed doctrine of alienation enunciated by Karl Marx, secondly it will serve as awareness to many Nigerians that there is a workable solution to this alienating condition which characterize their society.
It will also create the awareness that the solutions to the problems of alienation in Nigeria cannot be located in the solutions proffered by Karl Marx.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This project shall be limited to the doctrine of alienation and its solutions as enunciated by Karl Marx. This is not to neglect what other theorists have said about the concept of alienation. This work will also attend to alienation of Nigerian workers and the workable solutions to these alienations or estrangement. The role of the labour unions’ strikes will be examined to see if it is justified. The reactions of the Nigerian government to the conditions of the labour class will not be neglected.
Also, the applicability or non-applicability of the solutions proffered by Karl Mark will be examined critically to show how workable it is in the Nigerian context.
1.6 METHODOLOGY
My approach to this research work will be critical and analytical (a method where the issue at stake will be dissected and evaluated to show its good and had qualities.
To this end, therefore, materials to execute the research will be gotten from the library. This is not to undermine the importance of relevant books gotten from friends, relevant class notes and interviews.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
AN APPRAISAL OF HUMAN SOUL IN ST THOMAS AQUINAS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
GOD
Thomas says that the truth of the proposition THE GOD exists is knowable in itself, because the predicate is included in the essence of the subject. But it is not knowable to us, because the essence of THE GOD is unknowable to us. He also says that the essence of THE GOD is existence, that such a being is ipsum esse subsistens, and yet that we cannot know this essence. How is any of this coherent? Mustn’t one know what one is talking about to deny anything of it, in particular to deny that it is knowable to us? How can Thomas simultaneously assert what the essence of THE GOD is and deny that we know it?
In order to understand why his claims about the existence and essence of THE GOD are not incoherent, we need to place them within the context of Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics. According to Aristotle, one mode of per se predication, the first, is that in which the predicate of the proposition is included within the definition of the subject. We’ve already seen the second, where the subject is included in the defintion of the predicate, the mode appropriate to the powers of a subject. So in the first mode, if one immediately knew the essential definition of the subject, one would immediately know that a particular proposition is per se true simply by knowing that its predicate is included within that essential definition. Any proposition in which the predicate is included in the essential definition of the subject is knowable in itself. For instance, Thomas thinks that anyone who knows the language will know the truth of a proposition like a whole consists of the sum of its parts. Because the terms are related in this fashion and so fundamental in the language, no special knowledge is necessary to grasp its truth. Such a proposition is thus knowable in itself but also to us.
However, clearly this account leaves open the possibility of subjects in which the essential definition is either unknown or even unknowable. For instance, if we suppose that H2O is the essential definition of water, we have to recognize that there will be many who will not know it. It will not be immediately “known to us,” but require learning. No doubt we can still refer to water in statements about it because the term ‘water’ has a nominal definition, clear-potable-odorless etc., used by the community to refer to what is in fact H2O. So that water is H2O will be knowable in itself, even if unknowable to us, until we engage in Chemistry. Consider the mind. Clearly we use the term ‘mind’ meaningfully in any number of sentences. But perhaps, as Colin McGinn has argued, the actual nature of mind is incomprehensible to limited minds such as ours. In that case it might be knowable in itself, and yet strictly unknowable to us. Thus the distinction between what is knowable in itself and what is knowable to us is not incoherent.
What of the claims that the essence of THE GOD is not just unknown to us, but unknowable to us, that the essence of THE GOD is His existence, and that it is ipsum esse subsistens? Don’t these remain jointly inconsistent and thus incoherent, even if the underlying distinction is not? No. In claiming that the essence of THE GOD is not knowable to us, Thomas is talking about its accessibility to philosophical inquiry. The human mind of itself is proportioned to knowing material things. It can only know immaterial things insofar as causal arguments can be made to posit the existence of such things as necessary to the explanation of material things—causes that are only appealed to when one has excluded the possibility of a material explanation of the phenomenon. But we’ve already seen that to claim that something is immaterial is not to know any property of it, much less its essence. Still, it remains available to Thomas to claim that while the knowledge of the essence of THE GOD is unknowable to philosophy, it is known to us by Revelation. Indeed, he appeals to GOD’s revelation to Moses on Sinai to establish the claim that GOD’s essence is ipsum esse subsistens—that is to say, the being who reveals Himself to Moses identifies Himself as what the philosophers are looking for but cannot find in its essence. And Christians believe that GOD further discloses Himself in the Incarnation of Christ and the Gospel narratives as a Trinity of Persons in Unity of Substance. (Summa theologiae Ia.31.1 ad 4) Here, in knowing the essence of GOD as trinitarian we have another example, like the Resurrection, of something that can only be known by faith in GOD’s Revelation. It is not something that can be known by both Revelation and Philosophy. So the essence of GOD is knowable in itself, and also to the learned. But the learned are not the philosophers. Rather they are all those who know it by faith in GOD’s revelation.
So, can the existence of GOD be philosophically demonstrated? If GOD’s essence is His existence, and His essence remains in principle philosophically unknowable to us, how could it be demonstrated? In fact, Aquinas claims that it can be demonstrated that there is THE GOD, and that there is only one GOD. That GOD’s essence remains in principle philosophically unknowable to us is the basis for Aquinas’ denial that the existence of GOD can be demonstrated a priori. And any reliance upon knowledge of the essence that is only known to us by faith would by that fact cease to be properly philosophical. However, we have seen that Aquinas relies upon the distinction between nominal definitions of terms and essential definitions of the subjects referred to by those terms. To demonstrate the existence of THE GOD one may use nominal definitions that appeal to THE GOD as the cause of various phenomena. This is to argue a posteriori. The appeal to these nominal definitions forms the basis for Aquinas’ Five Ways (Summa Theologiae, Ia.2.3) all of which end with some claim about how the term ‘GOD’ is used.
Again, some will claim that Aquinas isn’t really interested in proving the existence of GOD in these Five Ways. After all, he already knows the existence of GOD by faith, and he is writing a theological work for beginners. What need is there of proving the existence of something he already knows exists? The Ways are very sketchy, and don’t even necessarily conclude to a single being, much less GOD or the Christian GOD. In addition, Aquinas claims that GOD’s essence is his existence and that we cannot know His essence, so we cannot know His existence. Aquinas must really intend the Five Ways as less than proofs; they are more like incomplete propaedeutic considerations for thinking adequately about GOD in Sacred Theology. In effect, Aquinas doesn’t think philosophy can in fact demonstrate the existence of GOD.
But as elsewhere these claims are ambiguous and suffer at the hands of Thomas’ own texts. In the first place, the objection that he already knows by faith that GOD exists has some merit in it, if we understand it as directed at a reading of Thomas that would have him attempting a foundational enterprise of grounding religious faith in what is rationally demonstrable by Philosophy. But that reading is anachronistic, and does not attend to the context of the Summa Theologiae. There is no reason to think that Thomas thinks the proofs are necessary for the rationality of religious faith. They are part of the enterprise of showing that Sacra Doctrina meets the condition of a science as described by Aristotle in the Posterior Analytics, which he had argued in the first question of the Summa, an issue that is different from the question of the broad rationality of religious faith.
In addition, the objections end up denying what Aquinas writes immediately before the Five Ways—that the existence of THE GOD is “demonstrable.” (Summa Theologiae Ia.2.2) And his introduction of the Five Ways begins by saying that the existence of THE GOD can be “proved” in Five Ways. To counter the objection that he must mean something informal here by “demonstrate” and “prove,” one need only recognize the explicit use of Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics to sort through the question. He cites Aristotle’s distinction between demonstrating the existence of some subject, and going on to demonstrate properties of that subject by appeal to the essence of the subject as cause of those properties. The first kind of demonstration is called demonstration quia, the second demonstration propter quid. In order to have any science at all, the subject matter must exist. So demonstration quia must precede demonstration propter quid. If you want to have a science of unicorns, you have to show me that there is at least one unicorn to be studied. There is no science of what does not exist. So there are two demonstrative stages in any science, the demonstration of the existence of the subject (quia), and the demonstration of the properties of the subject through its essence (propter quid). Aquinas’ denial that the essence of GOD can be known philosophically is a denial that one can have propter quid scientific understanding of THE GOD through philosophy. It is not a denial that there can be demonstration quia of the existence of THE GOD. There is no reason to deny that Thomas thinks the Five Ways are proofs or demonstrations in the most robust sense, namely that which he appeals to as set out by Aristotle in the Posterior Analytics.
Notice however the back and forth between the use of ‘GOD’ as a proper name and the use of ‘GOD’ as a common noun. One source of the ambiguity in the objections comes about because it is claimed that Aquinas does not think one can demonstrate the existence of GOD. But in terms of the Posterior Analytics one cannot demonstrate the existence of anything under a proper name. One can point at Socrates, and say “see, Socrates is alive.” One cannot do that with GOD. In addition, one cannot give a formal argument for Socrates existence using ‘Socrates’. One can only demonstrate in the relevant sense using common nouns, since such nouns are the only ones that have definitions, either nominal or essential. So strictly speaking it is true that Thomas doesn’t think one can demonstrate the existence of GOD in the Five Ways. He recognizes the difference between ‘GOD’ used as a proper noun, and ‘GOD’ used as a common noun. (Summa Theologiae Ia.13.9) The ambiguity is pronounced in Latin which lacks the indefinite article ‘a’, where in English we can disambiguate between ‘GOD’ and ‘THE GOD’. The situation is exacerbated by translations that simply translate ‘deus’ in the Ways as ‘GOD’ in English. In the Five Ways, he does not use ‘GOD’as a proper name, but as a common noun having five different nominal definitions. So each of the ways concludes that there is “THE GOD.” Thus, it is also true that the Five Ways do not as such prove that there is only one GOD. It is for that reason that Thomas himself thinks one must actually argue additionally that THE GOD must be utterly unique, and thus that there can be only one, which he does several questions after the Five Ways (Summa Theologiae Ia.11). Of course, once the utter uniqueness of THE GOD has been shown, one can begin to use “GOD” as a proper name to refer to that utterly unique being, as he subsequently argues in Summa Theologiae Ia.13 does happen.
It is the utter uniqueness and singularity of THE GOD that undermines the objection that whatever the philosophical arguments terminate in, it is not the GOD of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, THE GOD who is only known by faith. That is simply to deny Thomas’ claim that the GOD Jews, Christians, and Muslims believe in can be known, but only partially by philosophical analysis. If the demonstrations work, as Thomas thinks they do, what other GOD would the Jews, Christians, and Muslims believe in? There is no other GOD. Given GOD’s revelation, He must be identified with the utterly unique being the philosopher’s argument terminates in.
Finally, the sketchy character of the Ways reflects the fact that they are directed at beginning students. However the audience of beginners that Thomas has in mind are not beginners in Philosophy. They are beginners in Sacra Doctrina. As we have seen, in the medieval educational setting such beginners would be thoroughly steeped in the philosophical disciplines before ever being allowed to study Sacra Doctrina. So Aquinas could expect his readers to know the much more extensive and complete arguments he was gesturing at with the Five Ways, arguments to be found in detail in other figures like Aristotle, Avicenna, and so on, as well as in other works of his own, the Summa Contra Gentiles for example. In short, even if the Five Ways are judged to be unsound demonstrations, a judgment that requires close analysis and examination of the filled out arguments, there is no reason to suggest that Thomas took them any less seriously as demonstrations or proofs in the fullest sense.
Now, even though there can be no demonstration propter quid of GOD’s essence or nature, this does not mean that philosophical theology is left with a bare knowledge of the existence of GOD, and nothing more. The second stage of science will go on, but it will go on in a mode deeply indebted to Pseudo-Dionysius and Neoplatonism with the approach often called the “via negativa.” Instead of arguing positively from the essence of GOD to His properties, one will argue from GOD’s effects, particularly the perfections of creatures that do not of necessity involve material embodiment, to the affirmation that GOD possesses these perfections. However, recognizing that the way in which GOD possesses these perfections must be different from the way in which creatures possess them, one must deny that GOD has them in the creaturely mode. Instead He must possess them in a “super eminent” fashion that we cannot comprehend. So, while on the basis of effect to cause arguments we can say that GOD is just, wise, good, perfect, and so on, we do not know what it is for GOD to be just, wise, good, and perfect. We end up denying of GOD the creaturely mode of these perfections. In this way GOD is approached negatively by denying things of Him rather than by directly knowing what GOD is. This account relies heavily upon the use of analogous names in talking about GOD and creatures.
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) lived at a critical juncture of western culture when the arrival of the Aristotelian corpus in Latin translation reopened the question of the relation between faith and reason, calling into question the modus vivendi that had obtained for centuries. This crisis flared up just as universities were being founded. Thomas, after early studies at Montecassino, moved on to the University of Naples, where he met members of the new Dominican Order. It was at Naples too that Thomas had his first extended contact with the new learning. When he joined the Dominican Order he went north to study with Albertus Magnus, author of a paraphrase of the Aristotelian corpus. Thomas completed his studies at the University of Paris, which had been formed out of the monastic schools on the Left Bank and the cathedral school at Notre Dame. In two stints as a regent master Thomas defended the mendicant orders and, of greater historical importance, countered both the Averroistic interpretations of Aristotle and the Franciscan tendency to reject Greek philosophy. The result was a new modus vivendi between faith and philosophy which survived until the rise of the new physics. The Catholic Church has over the centuries regularly and consistently reaffirmed the central importance of Thomas’s work, both theological and philosophical, for understanding its teachings concerning the Christian revelation, and his close textual commentaries on Aristotle represent a cultural resource which is now receiving increased recognition. The following account concentrates on Thomas the philosopher.
Thomas was born in 1225 at Roccasecca, a hilltop castle from which the great Benedictine abbey of Montecassino is not quite visible, midway between Rome and Naples. At the age of five, he was entered at Montecassino where his studies began. When the monastery became a battle site—not for the last time—Thomas was transferred by his family to the University of Naples. It was here that he came into contact with the “new” Aristotle and with the Order of Preachers or Dominicans, a recently founded mendicant order. He became a Dominican over the protests of his family and eventually went north to study, perhaps first briefly at Paris, then at Cologne with Albert the Great, whose interest in Aristotle strengthened Thomas’s own predilections. Returned to Paris, he completed his studies, became a Master and for three years occupied one of the Dominican chairs in the Faculty of Theology. The next ten years were spent in various places in Italy, with the mobile papal court, at various Dominican houses, and eventually in Rome. From there he was called back to Paris to confront the controversy variously called Latin Averroism and Heterodox Aristotelianism. After this second three year stint, he was assigned to Naples. In 1274, on his way to the Council of Lyon, he fell ill and died on March 7 in the Cistercian abbey at Fossanova, which is perhaps twenty kilometers from Roccasecca.
1.2 Education
Little is known of Thomas’s studies at Montecassino, but much is known of the shape that the monastic schools had taken. They were one of the principal conduits of the liberal arts tradition which stretches back to Cassiodorus Senator in the 6th century. The arts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and those of the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy) were fragments preserved against the ruinous loss of classical knowledge. They constituted the secular education that complemented sacred doctrine as learned from the Bible. When Thomas transferred to Naples, his education in the arts continued. Here it would have been impressed upon him that the liberal arts were no longer adequate categories of secular learning: the new translations of Aristotle spelled the end of the liberal arts tradition, although the universities effected a transition rather than a breach.
Taking Thomas’s alma mater Paris as reference point, the Faculty of Arts provided the point of entry to teen-aged boys. With the attainment of the Master of Arts at about the age of 20, one could go on to study in a higher faculty, law, medicine or theology. The theological program Thomas entered in Paris was a grueling one, with the master’s typically attained in the early thirties. Extensive and progressively more intensive study of the scriptures, Old and New Testament, and of the summary of Christian doctrine called the Sentences which was compiled by the twelfth century Bishop of Paris, Peter Lombard. These close textual studies were complemented by public disputations and the even more unruly quodlibetal questions. With the faculty modeled more or less on the guilds, the student served a long apprenticeship, established his competence in stages, and eventually after a public examination was named a master and then gave his inaugural lecture.
1.3 Writings
Thomas’s writings by and large show their provenance in his teaching duties. His commentary on the Sentences put the seal on his student days and many of his very early commentaries on Scripture have come down to us. But from the very beginning Thomas produces writings which would not have emerged from the usual tasks of the theological master. On Being and Essence and The Principles of Nature (the latter a very useful summary for students of the principles that Aristotle develops in his Physics) date from his first stay at Paris, and unlike his commentaries on Boethius’ On the Trinity and De hebdomadibus, are quite obviously philosophical works. Some of his disputed questions date from his first stint as regius master at Paris. When he returned to Italy his productivity increased. He finished the Summa contra gentiles, wrote various disputed questions and began the Summa theologiae. In 1268, at Rome, he began the work of commenting on Aristotle with On the Soul, and during the next five or six years commented on eleven more Aristotelian works (not all of these are complete). During this time he was caught up in magisterial duties of unusual scope and was writing such polemical works as On the Eternity of the World and On There Being Only One Intellect.
At Naples, he was given the task of elevating the status of the Dominican House of Studies. His writing continued until he had a mystical experience which made him think of all he had done as “mere straw.” At the time of his death in 1274 he was under a cloud in Paris. 219 propositions were condemned in 1277 by a commission appointed by the Bishop of Paris, among them some tenets of Thomas. This was soon lifted, he was canonized and eventually was given the title of Common Doctor of the Church. But the subtle and delicate assimilation of Aristotle that characterized his work in both philosophy and theology did not survive his death, except in the Dominican Order, and has experienced ups and downs ever since.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
THE BINDING FORCE OF CONSCIENCE IN ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION … … … … … 1
1.1. Background of the Study … … … … 3
1.2. Statement of the Problem … … … … 4
1.3. Aim of the Study… … … … … … 5
1.4. Scope of the Study … … … … … 6
1.5. Methodology of Research … … … … 6
1.6. Division of Work … … … … … … 7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW … … … … … 8
2.1. Views of Some Thinkers on Conscience … 8
2.1.1. Ancient … … … … … … … … 8
2.1.2. Medieval … … … … … … … … 11
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. THE GENERAL CONCEPT OF CONSCIENCE … 17
3.1. Synderesis and Conscience … … … … 21
3.2. Kinds of Conscience … … … … … … 23
3.2.1. Conscience in Relation to Objective Morality … 24
3.2.2. Conscience in Relation to Judgment of Action … 28
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. AQUINAS’ NOTION OF CONSCIENCE … … 30
4.1. The Binding Force of Conscience … … 37
4.2. The Problem of Error in Conscience … 41
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. CRITICAL EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION … 46
5.1. Critical Evaluation … … … … … … 46
5.2. Conclusion … … … … … … … … 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY … … … …
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Man’s personal experience no doubt tells him that in him exists something in the nature of inner voice, which makes itself heard in man’s personal life, especially in his moral doings. This inner voice is the conscience. It is an ever-living term and concept in the history of Ethics in the sense that it occupies a strategic position in moral judgment.
Nonetheless, conscience has been a perennial issue, which has not outlasted its suitability in the minds of philosophers, psychologists, religionists, etc who research into the explanation of the mysteries behind human behavior and action. Admittedly, there are divergent opinions about the meaning of conscience from these professional fields resulting to different notions of conscience. Thus, it is not surprising to notice conscience being expressed as: innermost psychic center, voice of God, higher self, etc. In any case, “conscience is seen as the moral faculty which tells human beings subjectively what is good or evil and which, in turn, indicates to them what their moral obligations are in any concrete action to be performed.”1
However, man as a moral being has the obligation to obey his conscience; “to do what his conscience tells him, even when it is objectively wrong.”2 In the light of this, the Vatican Council II has it that:
Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself, but which he must obey. Its voice ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid evil, tells him inwardly at the right moment: do this, shun that…3
This to a greater extent proves the fact that conscience is a moral faculty, and also binds. To buttress this point, Thomas Aquinas whose line of thought we follow maintains that “so far as it is through the conscience that we judge that something should be done or not done, conscience in this sense is said to incite or to bind.”4 So, conscience tells one subjectively what is good and evil, and manifests its moral obligation to him.
To explicate the nature of this research work, there is the need in this introductory part, to state the background, the statement of the problem, the aim, scope, method and division of the work.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Man as a rational animal always makes a rational judgment over the actions he performs or the actions to be performed, to know how good they are. This is not unconnected with the fact that man’s natural inclination is to seek for the ultimate good for himself and to attain happiness, which is his end. In view of this, F. Copleston asserts that:
The will (of man) therefore desires happiness, beatitudes, as its end, and human acts are good or bad in so far as they are or are not means to the attainment of that end.5
Thus, as man strives towards the attainment of this happiness, which is his final end, his nearest guide is always his conscience. Conscience then becomes man’s nearest guide to his moral life and as such a point of attraction to all and sundry. No wonder, parents address their children on it, formators make lessons on it, Christians pay homage to it, and philosophers make a critical examination on it.
Among the philosophers and great thinkers that have contributed to the discussion on conscience was Thomas Aquinas. His interest on conscience was at the medieval era, when there was a debate on the nature and relationship between conscience and synderesis. Aquinas was able to discover the characteristics of these concepts and their operation in the intellect, as well as in the actions of man. He also found out that the concept “conscience” really has a strong binding force and as such, man is bound to follow its dictates.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Conscience, though a subjective norm of morality is the dictate of reason applied to practical and particular acts. Many philosophers as it were believed that conscience helps man in making a moral judgment. Likewise, synderesis. In any case, one may wonder what these concepts “conscience” and “synderesis” are. What is the relationship between them? St. Thomas Aquinas, as we shall see, attempted these questions. In addition, he established the fact that conscience, whether it is a true or an erroneous one binds. At the same time, he was of the view that one who follows an erroneous conscience is not exempt from bad act. Is this not a contradiction? In fact, here lies the problem on the binding force of conscience. One may ask: if that is the case, where then lies the binding capacity of conscience? Does it mean that somebody with an erroneous conscience must always act wrongly? What then happens to the error involved in the erroneous conscience? Can the error be corrected? Or does one depend solely on the fact that one is bound? Aquinas’ approach to these problems is not firm, for he only advised that the error in erroneous conscience be put away.
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY
Having seen the possible questions, problems and confusions that arise in the discussion of conscience and its binding force, there is the need therefore, to highlight them. So, I wish in this research work, to expose how Aquinas’ explanation of synderesis and conscience solved the problems raised above. Similarly, I would like to examine the problem of error in conscience, that is to say, examining the problems involved in the binding force of conscience, and in addition, find a better solution to the problems.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Many philosophers and great thinkers as we had pointed out earlier, hold varied opinions on conscience and its binding force. But, it is worthy to note that the development of the study of conscience was very much influenced by St. Thomas Aquinas. Therefore, the study is based on his line of thought especially as it concerns the binding force of conscience.
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Our method of study shall be an exposition of Aquinas’ concept of conscience and its binding force. After the explanation of this concept, there is an evaluation and the final conclusion. These are aimed at making us clearly understand the relevance of Aquinas thought.
1.6 DIVISION OF WORK
This work is divided into five chapters. The first chapter, which we have already seen, is the introductory part of the whole research work. In the second chapter, we shall look into the views of some thinkers before Aquinas who discussed this concept “conscience”. Then, the third chapter would be the general notion of conscience and its kinds. In the fourth chapter, we shall involve ourselves with the exposition of Aquinas’ teachings on conscience and its binding force. Lastly, chapter five will be the evaluation and conclusion of the research work.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
PLATO’S IDEA OF ‘PHILOSOPHER KING’ AND NIGERIAN LEADERSHIP CRISIS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Today in Nigeria, leadership in all facets of our life – government, industry, education, church and what have you – has come to be the hub of the country’s problem. Chinua Achebe summarized it thus in his book “The Trouble with Nigeria” that, “the problem with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership.”[1]
In a global level, Oyebola minced no words when he said in his, “Blackman’s Dilemma” that, “very poor leadership appears to be the Blackman’s greatest problem.”[2]
Achebe, articulated it further as the inability of the leaders to rise to their responsibility:
There is nothing basically wrong with the Nigerian land or climate or water or air or anything else. The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to the challenges of personal example, which are the hallmarks of true leadership. [3]
Lack of genuine leadership has been chorusly condemned and generally blamed for poverty and the travails of the Nigeria society. There is no doubt that Nigeria’s or Africa’s problem is due to lack of leadership. Rev. C. Kingston Ekeke, Nigerian-Atlanta based pastor observed that there are at least three main areas of failure in Nigeria’s leadership. For him they include: “lack of bold and courageous leadership, lack of moral ingredients of leadership and premature exposure to leadership.”[4]
Our country is doing little to develop the younger generation on the act of leadership. No one wants to take the risk for the survival of our country. The few who want to demand for their right are being pursued about. Think of Alhaji Mujaheeden Dokubo Asari, the fearless and outspoken leader of the militant Ijaw youth who has persistently and passionately called for an independent state of Ijaw people and peaceful separation of Ijaw people from Nigeria.
Chief Ralph Uwazuruike, the leader of the revived movement for the actualisation of the sovereign state of Biafra (MASSOB) is not left out. There is nothing like press freedom in the dictionary of Nigerian leaders. The military dictator of Abacha was able to silence the people of Ogoni after the brutal killing of Ken Saro Wiwa, a man of intellectual ability, and his Ogoni compatriots.
Most of those who were at the helm of affairs both at the federal and state levels were retired military men who were trained …to defend the nation from external and internal aggressions. Their war-war style of administration instead of the jaw- jaw method practiced by civilized human beings took this country many years back.[5]
Many of our leaders, weighed down by avalanche of criticisms, always fall out with the Press. Think of several imprisonments of human rights defenders like Gani Fawhinmi, Femi Falana, and Baba Omojola. Nations must certainly grow out of challenges and criticisms.
Many Nigerians are yet to enjoy much of the dividends of democracy such as good roads, pipe borne water, rural electrification, healthcare services due to the poor performance of our leaders. For our leaders, all these matter not. Today millions of Nigerians would not be starving to death if our leaders had known that there primary duty is to care for the masses and not to enrich their foreign accounts and western mentors. Regrettably, all they are interested in is having masters degree in travelling outside the state, competing on who becomes the widest traveller, and making every possible plan to handover a state bereft of infrastructure.
Now that we have seen that our problem is that of leadership, we have to implore the idea of one of the prominent political theorist, Plato -philosopher king.
1.2 AIM OF STUDY
The most urgent issue in Nigeria currently seems to be the issue on how to address the problem of leadership. Having done away with military leadership, Nigerians thought that embracing democratic rule would bring to us a responsive and responsible political institution that would promote a government that is accountable, government that would prevent corruption, respect human and civil rights, and ensure popular sovereignty, but the reverse is the case. In view of this, the aim of this work is to see how the issues of corruption, incompetent leadership, tribalism and nepotism, since they remained the most difficult problems in Nigeria leadership system, could be addressed.
For most Nigerians however, the pressing problems of everyday survival remain the highest immediate priority. And how could such immediate priority get to us without effective leadership and management? Nigeria is undoubtedly endowed with abundant human and natural resources to address its problems. The solution for addressing its problems and so consolidate democratic governance in the federal republic lies in having a government that works on the principles of good governance and is most especially, accountable to the Nigerian people.
Leadership crisis has done more harm than good in this nation of ours. The paupers are marginalized, men are shouting, women are screaming, children are crying- it is chaotic. The most baffling and awful of all is that Nigeria has all that it requires to be great, but who can bell the cat? Who can lead the people of Nigeria out of this dungeon? Our leaders have lost the quintessence of true leadership in pursuit of shadows. We have not truly had any significant input into the design and structure of our polity. Consequently, Nigeria is gradually but inevitably dwindling into mediocrity and ineffectiveness. Our leaders are no longer servants but masters. There is utter disregard for Ojukwu’s advice that
Those who aspire to lead must bear in mind the fact that they are servants and as such cannot ever be greater than the people, their masters.[6]
In his political philosophy, Plato thinks that the most qualified in the state should be the person to rule. So, this work is aimed at bringing to lime light the need for someone who can pilot the affairs effectively and should be entrusted to take up the task.
Following the trend of Plato, those who have the greatest of the great qualities should have the first place unless they fail in some other respect, and for the scripture, when the good man is in power the people will rejoice.
1.2 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
One could recall that the major problems witnessed in the world; first and second world wars were all as a result of leadership tussles. As a matter of fact, these had made great thinkers to examine and propound various leadership theories that seem to be the best and are widely accepted form of leaderships. It is on this regard that I wish to dwell basically on Plato’s political theory with regard to leadership.
The range of this work embraces both the pre-colonial and the post-colonial era in Nigeria political history. Plato’s political theory is brought in to juxtapose it with Nigerian circumstance. So, within the limit of this work, attention will be given not only to Plato’s political theory but also to Nigerian political situation.
I will be indebted to justice if I fail to mention some of our political leaders who have not done well both in the past and the present administrations. We shall try to present also the possible causes of leadership failure etc.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
Because this research delves into the political theory of Plato, we shall try to employ expository method. Moreover, it has to be critically evaluative, historically discursive and philosophically interpretative. Some analysis will also be carried out.
1.5 DIVISION OF WORK
This work surveys critically and carefully Plato’s idea of “philosopher-king” and “Nigerian leadership crisis”. And in order to ensure that no stone is left unturned, the work is divided into five chapters.
Like many other political philosophers, Plato recognizes the need for a civil society – to – be. But unlike many, and especially in this particular polity, Plato maintained that if a civil society must arise, it must be an ideal and must be perfect. Its leaders must be worthy of emulation and well trained. In view of this, chapter one of this research work takes a look at how actually the whole work will look like-the aim of the research, the methodology and scope.
In the second phase of this work, comes Plato’s political theory. There we shall see the composition of any given political society.
Chapter three is devoted to Nigerian leaders and their style of leadership, beginning from the pre-colonial, post-colonial to present era.
The fourth chapter is where I tried to tinker Plato’s political theory on Nigerian circumstances. In this chapter, we see how possible it is, and the relevance Plato’s idea to Nigerian leaders.
The final chapter deals with systematic criticism and evaluation of Plato’s piece. Here also, I offered my own contributions.
1.6 ANALYSIS OF CONCEPTS
It is often presumed that we know, whereas we do not know. In view of this, there is the need to give some explanation to some basic concepts used in this work.
Again, terms or words sometimes assume different connotation and meaning depending on the context they are used. This makes it sometimes difficult to know exactly what a particular word stands for.
It is on this ground that I wish to explain briefly, some of the words used, or even, some of the words that would be of help to us in understanding the work. Prominent among them are:
· PHILOSOPHY
The term philosophy is an amalgamation of two Greek words “philein” and “Sophia”, meaning “to love” and “wisdom” respectively. Etymologically, it means “love of wisdom” when combined together. It is a word Plato attributed to his master Socrates, who called his students lovers of wisdom.
In a more technical sense, it could be the ultimate or essential nature of all reality by the use of natural reason.[7] The concern of philosophy distinguishes it from other sciences. In a wider use of the term, one can say that the habitual activity of human being flows directly from his philosophy of life. Each person thinks about life, and the sum total of this thinking constitutes an attitude towards life, which in general shapes and guides his deliberate actions.
Nevertheless, that a man sometimes does the wise or right thing is no evidence that he possesses philosophical wisdom; rather what justifies him is his ability to give grounds for his action that will stand up to cross examination. In addition, philosophy proceeds by criticizing received opinions, clarification and critical evaluation of belief and concepts. For John Dewey, it is a “criticism of criticism”.
Apart from the above, B.C. Okolo defines philosophy as,
…that department of knowledge that deals with ultimate reality, or with the most general laws, causes and principles of things. In its general tasks, philosophy tries to give a coherent and systematic account of human experience and what grounds it.[8]
· POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Political philosophy is the rational application of philosophical thinking to ideas about the state. It is a rational enquiry into all that concern man and his life in relation with his fellow man in a state. Unlike political science or sociology, it goes beyond the mere collection and descriptive explanation of political phenomena. It belongs to the higher level of scientific enquiry, an enquiry into the ideals.
Political philosophy inquires into the universal nature of the political phenomena. This is done with the aim to clarify concepts and critically evaluate beliefs thereby justify either acceptance of a belief or its rejection in relation to the state. It is, therefore, both normative and prescriptive. It seeks to mould the totality of political phenomena to accord with some vision of political systems, principals and ideologies.
Political philosophy deals with ideal forms of governments and social organization. It treats, for instance, the essential features of various types of governments such as democracy, socialism, monarch, fascism, communism, etc. It investigates such questions as, what is the state? What is the common good? Why should men live in society? What are natural rights? Etc.
· NIGERIA
Flora Shaw, Sir Fredrick Lugard’s wife suggested the name Nigeria, which was a farrago of two words “Niger” and “area”.
Nigeria is located in the Western Coast of Africa on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea. The Sahara desert bound it on the north and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean. Its total area is approximately 356,000 square miles, slightly more than the combined areas of France and Germany – both west and East Germany. Its name is derived from its main inland waterway, the river Niger, which flows some 2,600miles from the hills of Sierra Leone into the enormous fluvial complex of the Niger delta.
The republic of Nigeria has the second largest economy on the continent and the most populous sub-Saharan country in West Africa. Nigeria has a federal structure with thirty-six (36) states, with the federal government located at Abuja. A multi-religious society, it has 250 ethnic groups speaking over 350 languages and dialects.[9] It is important to note that it was these groups that were, on the imposition of the colonial rule, merged to produce a modern Nigerian state. The major languages are English, Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa.
· LEADERSHIP
Should our society be without leaders? If such were to be possible, then chaos and anarchy would ensue, resulting into nothing less than the Hobbesian state of nature. In view of this, ‘a scrupulous leader’ must man our society with a proven moral integrity for the full self-actualisation of man in the same society. Now the question is, who is a leader?
From the point of view of etymology, the term ‘leader’ stems from the Greek word “proagw” (proagoo) meaning ‘ I lead forth’ or ‘ I go before’, and the Latin common noun “dux” –leader.
Various authors have attempted a definition of this word in different ways. According to Julius Gould William,
Leadership denotes the occupying of a statue and the active performance of a role that mobilizes more or less organized, collective and voluntary effort towards the attainment of a shared goal and objective.[10]
This implies that the activity of a leader should be directed towards attainment of something greater. To buttress this, Sumbye Kapena in his book “How To Be A Wise Leader”, asserts:
Leadership is the process of directing the behaviour of another person or persons towards the accomplishment of some objective. This leadership is exercised whenever a person influences the behaviour of another person or a group of people towards achieving an objective. [11]
Generally, leadership could be seen as directing, mobilizing and controlling the activities of a group of people with a common interest. It is the pathfinder of the people or society.
Leadership could be associated with any organized group, ranging from family, peer group, social and religious organization, state and country. And the crux of its problem centres substantially upon the soundness of the leader’s goal, purpose and aim.
In human society, leadership is a polyglot process involving ‘knowing the way, showing the way, and going the way’. [12] We can see that it involves one in toto. Such is the case because, “one essential demand of leadership is to be like a waste-paper basket, a dustbin where all dirt and rubbish are heaped.”
Leadership does not mean wealth, great education or position, says J. Keller. Rather, it means initiative, willingness to serve, and an idealism rooted in divine Truth.[14]
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420