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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RADIATION PROTECTION MEASURES USED IN PRIVATE AND GOVERNMENT RADIO DIAGNOSTIC FACILITIES IN PLATEAU STATE
Abstract
Radiation protection is a critical aspect of radiodiagnostic practices, ensuring the safety of patients, healthcare workers, and the public. This study provides a comparative analysis of the radiation protection measures employed in private and government radio diagnostic facilities in Plateau State, Nigeria. The research aims to assess the effectiveness and compliance levels of radiation protection protocols in both types of facilities, highlighting potential gaps and areas for improvement.
Data were collected through structured questionnaires, interviews, and direct observation of practices in selected private and government facilities. The study examines key factors such as the availability and use of protective equipment, staff training and awareness, adherence to regulatory standards, and the implementation of safety protocols.
The findings reveal significant differences in the radiation protection measures between private and government facilities. While government facilities generally adhere more strictly to established safety standards, private facilities often exhibit more flexible practices, sometimes at the expense of safety. The study also identifies common challenges faced by both sectors, including inadequate funding, lack of continuous professional development, and insufficient regulatory oversight.
Based on the results, recommendations are made to enhance radiation protection practices in both private and government radiodiagnostic facilities. These include increased regulatory enforcement, mandatory training programs for radiology personnel, and the provision of adequate protective equipment. The study underscores the importance of uniform radiation safety protocols across all healthcare sectors to ensure the highest levels of protection for both patients and staff.
This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on improving radiation safety standards in Nigeria, offering insights that can guide policymakers, healthcare administrators, and regulatory bodies in their efforts to enhance radiodiagnostic safety in Plateau State.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
According to World Health Organization, there are about 250 million cases of work-related injuries per year worldwide.1 One of the jobs that contribute to these occupational injuries is non-industrial welding, especially in developing countries including Nigeria. Welders cut and join metal parts using flame, electric arc or other sources of heat. There are three main classes of welding, namely, arc, oxyacetylenefuel
and robotic welding. Some of the hazards of this occupation include ultraviolet (UV) and infrared radiation (IR) exposure, fumes and particulate generation, thermal burns, occupational heat stress, exposure to electromagnetic fields, and electrocution.2 Similarly, the excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to UV radiation may lead to `arc eye’ or `flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage.2,3 Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes
containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and influenza-like condition called metal fume fever.
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. While adherence to these precautions is nearly universal in the developed world, little is known about the situation in developing world including Nigeria.
In metropolitan Kaduna, the former administrative capital of northern Nigeria, welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops. This group has no organized occupational health service and their adherence to safety measures is unknown. We, therefore assessed the level of awareness of these hazards among welders in Kaduna metropolis and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
Radiation is all around us, it is naturally present in our environment and has been since the birth of this planet. Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There two classes of radiation, ionizing and non ionizing radiation. Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes. As a matter of convention, ionizing radiation is classified as photons(X rays and gamma rays) or particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles and beta particles). When ionizing radiation passes through matter, it may interact with whole atom electrons, nuclei or nucleons.
This interaction process in general is often described as collision. In this case of practical interest, the interaction results in the full transfer of energy of the incident radiation to electrons or nuclei of the constituent atoms or to charged particle products of nuclear reactions. The major sources of ionizing radiation that were available until 1930s were naturally occurring radioactive substance and low energy X-ray. But today, ionizing radiation can be produced from particle accelerations (Shalak and Chien, 1986) and is present in the environment, it is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, so instrument such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Employment of safety measures and practices among welders are important ways of preventing or reducing the levels of health hazards associated with the occupation. It is therefore pertinent to assess the level of awareness of these hazards among welders and the safety measures and practices they adopt to safeguard their health, with a view
to making recommendations on ways of ameliorating the effect of the hazards.
Welders are often exposed to potential workplace hazards that can be injurious to their health especially when exposure is on a regular and cumulative basis. The excessive high temperature generated by the hot oxyacetylene flame or the electric current may lead to burns and electric shocks2.
Injuries such as lacerations and cuts by sharp or pointed metal panes, from high velocity particles and occasional explosions of the oxyacetylene gas tanks may also occur2. The excessive lighting (glare) and exposure to ultra violet radiation may lead to ‘arc eye’ or ‘flash burn’ injuries to the cornea, photokeratosis and double vision and consequent retinal damage. Hearing impairment may result from exposure to high noise level produced by the welding machine. Welders are also exposed to noxious metal fumes containing a cocktail of metals like zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, platinum, and their oxides leading to various respiratory dysfunctions and to the influenza-like condition known as metal fume feve. There have been reports of carcinogenic and mutagenic effects due to chronic exposure to welding fumes in animals
that may be extrapolated to man.8-10. Other organs, which may be affected by welding fumes, include the kidneys and the reproductive organs leading to reduction in sperm count and fecundity.
Welding offers employment to various individuals in Benin City, Nigeria. The welders are usually located around mechanic workshops, motor spare-parts markets and along major highways where they establish privately owned small-scale workshops with about welders per workshop. They have no form of organised occupational health service.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To find out how much, the non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard.
2. To know if they actually practice radiation protection.
3. To identify the basic principle of radiation protection.
4. To assess the knowledge and awareness of radiation among welders in Nigeria.
5. To examine the extent of eye protection practices and symptoms among welders in the Nigeria.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
1. How much does non radiation workers (personnel) knew about radiation hazard?
2. Does non radiation workers actually practice radiation protection?
3. What are the basic principle of radiation protection?
4. Do welder in Nigeria have full knowledge and awareness of radiation practice?
5. To what extent does non radiation workers practice eye protection practices?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOYTHESES
H0: Non radiation workers have no knewledge about radiation hazard.
H1: Non radiation workers have full knewledge about radiation hazard.
1.6 SIGNFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will help to create awareness about Radiation protection to general public.
ii). Also help to prompt the personnel about the effects of ionizing radiation.
Also help reinforce existing knowledge to the non radiation workers.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This scope of this research work is a study of radiation protection awareness in non non radiation workers.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Despite the limited scope of this study certain constraints were encountered during the research of this project. Some of the constraints experienced by the researcher were given below:
i. time: This was a major constraint on the researcher during the period of the work. Considering the limited time given for this study, there was not much time to give this research the needed attention.
ii. Finance: Owing to the financial difficulty prevalent in the country and it’s resultant prices of commodities, transportation fares, research materials etc. The researcher did not find it easy meeting all his financial obligations.
iii. Information Constraints: Nigerian researchers have never had it easy when it comes to obtaining necessary information relevant to their area of study from private business organization and even government agencies. People find it difficult to reveal their internal operations. The primary information was collected through face-to-face interview getting the published materials on this topic meant going from one library to other which was not easy. Although these problems placed limitations on the study, but it did not prevent the researcher from carrying out a detailed and comprehensive research work on the subject matter.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Radiation: Radiation is a component of man’s physical environment, and is broadly classified into ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
Ionizing Radiation: Ionizing Radiation is defined as a radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom in the medium through which it passes.
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PREVALENCE OF LOW BACK PAIN AMONG PRACTISING RADIOGRAPHERS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Estimates of LBP prevalence in children and adolescents vary widely between studies depending on the age of study participants, and on methodological differences—particularly in terms of LBP definition. Watson et al report a one month period prevalence of 24% in schoolchildren aged 11–14 years in northwest England,5 whereas Balagué et al show the one year prevalence to be 26% in schoolchildren aged 12–17 years in Switzerland.6 Salminen et al show the one year prevalence of LBP “with limitation to activity” to be 17.6% in 14 year old Finnish children;7 also in Finland, Taimela et al report a prevalence of 18%, using the same definition.8 Even studies that record pain over a very short time interval (for example, point prevalence) reveal that as many as 1 child in 20 may be suffering from LBP at any one time.9–11 As in adults, prevalence of LBP in childhood increases with age and has been shown repeatedly to be higher in girls than in boys.5,9,12–14
1.2 Statement of the problem
Although it is difficult to measure LBP incidence, studies have shown that “new onset” LBP is also common. A recent study revealed that 19% of children aged 11–14 years, and known to be free of symptoms at baseline, reported LBP 12 months subsequently.15 Other authors have presented similar results with 16%, 22%, and 22% of 8, 11, and 13 year olds, respectively, reporting new onset LBP two years after initial assessment. This work gives more information in the subject
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the impact of low back pain on the health status of children and adolescents
2. To understand the relationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
1.4 Research questions
1. What is the impact of low back pain on the health status of children and adolescents
2. What is the relationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
1.5 Research hypothesis
H0: There is norelationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
H1: There is arelationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
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EVALUATION OF THE EXPECTATIONS OF GRADUATING RADIOGRAPHY STUDENTS IN SELECTED NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES
ABSTRACT
This work discusses the evaluation of the expectations of graduating radiography students in selected Nigeria universities. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among radiography students from selected Nigeria institutions. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that the technical competence of radiography students is in high demand in the public health industry in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
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PREPAREDNESS OF NIGERIAN-TRAINED RADIOGRAPHERS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE IN NIGERIA; PERCEPTIONS OF FRESH GRADUATES IN ENUGU METROPOLIS
ABSTRACT
This work discusses preparedness of nigerian-trained radiographers for clinical practice in nigeria; perceptions of fresh graduates in enugu metropolis. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among radiography students, and lecturers from selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that the lecturers’ technical competence, and availability of teaching and learning facilities have strong and significant impact on the preparedness of Nigerian-trained radiographers for clinical practice in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
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EVALUATION OF GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF LUMBOSACRAL VERTEBRAE RADIOGRAPH STUDY
Abstract:
This research focuses on the comprehensive evaluation of geometric parameters related to the lumbosacral vertebrae through a radiographic study. The lumbosacral region plays a critical role in spinal stability and overall biomechanics, making a detailed analysis of its geometric characteristics essential for clinical and anatomical understanding. The study involves the collection of radiographic data from a diverse population sample, employing advanced imaging techniques.
The research objectives include the precise measurement of key geometric parameters such as vertebral dimensions, angles, and intervertebral relationships. Radiographic images will be analyzed using digital imaging software to obtain accurate measurements, and statistical methods will be employed to identify variations and patterns within the data.
The findings of this study are anticipated to contribute valuable insights into the normal variations and potential anomalies in the geometric parameters of the lumbosacral vertebrae. Such knowledge is crucial for clinicians, orthopedic surgeons, and researchers involved in spinal pathology, surgical interventions, and the development of therapeutic approaches. Ultimately, this research aims to enhance our understanding of the anatomical intricacies of the lumbosacral region, providing a foundation for improved diagnostic and treatment strategies in spinal healthcare.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background and Rationale
– Overview of the significance of the lumbosacral vertebrae in spinal biomechanics
– Relevance of geometric parameters in clinical and anatomical contexts
1.2 Research Objectives
– Establishing the primary goals of the radiographic study
1.3 Research Questions
– Formulating specific questions to guide the investigation
1.4 Scope and Limitations
– Defining the boundaries of the study and potential constraints
1.5 Significance of the Study
– Discussing the potential contributions to clinical practice and anatomical research
1.6 Organization of the Thesis
– Previewing the structure of subsequent chapters
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Anatomy of the Lumbosacral Vertebrae
– Detailed overview of the structure and function of the lumbosacral region
2.2 Importance of Geometric Parameters
– Reviewing existing literature on the relevance of geometric parameters in spinal studies
2.3 Radiographic Techniques in Spinal Imaging
– Exploration of various radiographic methods and their applications
2.4 Previous Studies on Lumbosacral Geometric Parameters
– Summarizing relevant research conducted by others
2.5 Gaps in Existing Knowledge
– Identifying areas where further research is warranted
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
3.1 Study Design
– Detailing the design of the radiographic study
3.2 Population and Sample Selection
– Describing the characteristics of the study population and the sampling process
3.3 Data Collection
– Explanation of the radiographic imaging procedures and techniques
3.4 Measurement Protocols
– Outlining the methods used for accurate geometric parameter measurements
3.5 Statistical Analysis
– Describing the statistical tools employed for data interpretation
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results
4.1 Overview of Data Analysis
– Presenting the approach to analyzing radiographic data
4.2 Descriptive Statistics
– Reporting key characteristics of the sample and measurements
4.3 Inferential Statistics
– Uncovering patterns, variations, and correlations within the data
4.4 Results
– Presenting findings in a comprehensive manner with visual aids
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion
5.1 Interpretation of Results
– Discussing the implications of findings in relation to research objectives
5.2 Comparison with Previous Studies
– Contrasting current results with those from existing literature
5.3 Limitations of the Study
– Addressing any constraints or challenges encountered
5.4 Recommendations for Future Research
– Suggesting avenues for further investigation
5.5 Conclusion
– Summarizing key findings and their contributions to the field
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ESTABLISHMENT OF THERAPEUTIC REFERENCE LEVELS FOR COMMON CANCER TREATMENT PROCEDURES IN RADIOTHERAPY FACILITIES
Abstract
Establishing therapeutic reference levels (TRLs) in radiotherapy is crucial to optimizing treatment efficacy while minimizing risks to patients undergoing cancer treatment. This study aims to establish and validate TRLs for common cancer treatment procedures in radiotherapy facilities, with a focus on ensuring consistent and safe radiation doses across different treatment centers.
The research involved a comprehensive review and analysis of radiation doses administered in various radiotherapy facilities. Data were collected from a representative sample of patients undergoing treatment for common types of cancer, including breast, prostate, lung, and colorectal cancers. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis with expert consultations to determine the most appropriate TRLs.
Results from the study indicate that the establishment of standardized TRLs can significantly enhance the quality and safety of radiotherapy treatments. The proposed TRLs provide a benchmark for comparing radiation doses across different facilities and highlight areas where dose adjustments may be necessary to meet optimal therapeutic outcomes.
The findings underscore the importance of regular monitoring and adjustment of TRLs based on emerging evidence and technological advancements in radiotherapy. By implementing these reference levels, radiotherapy facilities can improve treatment outcomes, reduce the incidence of radiation-induced side effects, and ensure patient safety.
This study contributes to the development of evidence-based guidelines for radiotherapy practices and supports the continuous improvement of cancer treatment protocols. The establishment of TRLs is a critical step towards achieving uniformity and excellence in radiotherapy services.
Keywords: Therapeutic reference levels, radiotherapy, cancer treatment, radiation dose, patient safety, treatment optimization, standardization, radiotherapy facilities.
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Radiotherapy is a critical component in the treatment of cancer, with nearly half of all cancer patients receiving some form of radiotherapy during their treatment. The effectiveness of radiotherapy depends on delivering precise doses of ionizing radiation to target tumor tissues while minimizing exposure to surrounding healthy tissues. The establishment of Therapeutic Reference Levels (TRLs) for radiotherapy is essential to optimize treatment protocols, ensuring consistent and safe practices across radiotherapy facilities.
In recent years, advancements in technology have improved the accuracy of radiation delivery. However, variations in treatment protocols and equipment calibration across different facilities can lead to inconsistencies in radiation doses administered to patients. These variations may affect treatment outcomes and increase the risk of radiation-induced side effects. Therefore, there is a growing need to establish standardized TRLs for common cancer treatment procedures to enhance the safety and effectiveness of radiotherapy.
Cancer remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with millions of new cases diagnosed each year. Radiotherapy, a cornerstone of cancer treatment, plays a vital role in the management of various malignancies, often in combination with surgery and chemotherapy. The success of radiotherapy hinges on the precise delivery of ionizing radiation to destroy cancer cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissues. Achieving this balance requires careful calibration of radiation doses, which can vary significantly depending on the type of cancer, the specific treatment modality used, and the individual patient’s characteristics.
Despite advances in radiotherapy technology, there are still challenges in standardizing treatment protocols across different facilities. Variations in equipment, techniques, and expertise can lead to discrepancies in the radiation doses administered to patients. Such variations may affect treatment outcomes, potentially leading to suboptimal tumor control or an increased risk of radiation-induced side effects. To address these challenges, the establishment of Therapeutic Reference Levels (TRLs) has emerged as a critical strategy for optimizing radiotherapy practices.
TRLs serve as benchmark dose levels for specific medical procedures, guiding healthcare providers in delivering safe and effective radiation therapy. By establishing TRLs for common cancer treatment procedures, radiotherapy facilities can ensure consistency in treatment delivery, reduce the risk of overexposure or underexposure, and ultimately improve patient outcomes. However, in many regions, particularly in developing countries, standardized TRLs are not yet established, contributing to variability in treatment quality and patient safety.
This study focuses on the establishment of Therapeutic Reference Levels for common cancer treatment procedures in radiotherapy facilities. It aims to assess the current radiation dose levels used across different facilities, identify factors contributing to dose variations, and develop standardized TRLs that can be implemented to enhance the safety and efficacy of radiotherapy. By addressing the need for standardized TRLs, this research will contribute to the ongoing efforts to improve cancer treatment outcomes and ensure that all patients receive the highest standard of care, regardless of where they are treated.
1.2 Problem Statement
Despite the critical role of radiotherapy in cancer treatment, there is a lack of standardized TRLs in many radiotherapy facilities, particularly in developing countries. This lack of standardization can result in significant variations in patient outcomes, potentially leading to suboptimal treatment efficacy and increased radiation-related complications. The establishment of TRLs for common cancer treatment procedures is necessary to provide a benchmark for radiation doses, ensuring that patients receive the most effective and safest treatment possible.
Without TRLs, radiotherapy facilities may struggle to evaluate and optimize their treatment protocols, leading to inconsistencies in patient care. This study aims to address this gap by establishing TRLs for common cancer treatment procedures in radiotherapy facilities, thereby contributing to improved treatment outcomes and patient safety.
1.3 Research Objectives
The primary objective of this study is to establish Therapeutic Reference Levels for common cancer treatment procedures in radiotherapy facilities. The specific objectives are:
To assess the current radiation dose levels used in common cancer treatment procedures across different radiotherapy facilities.
To determine the factors contributing to variations in radiation dose levels.
To develop standardized TRLs for these procedures based on collected data and expert recommendations.
To evaluate the impact of implementing TRLs on treatment outcomes and patient safety.
1.4 Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
What are the current radiation dose levels used in common cancer treatment procedures across radiotherapy facilities?
What factors contribute to the variations in radiation dose levels across different facilities?
How can standardized TRLs be established for common cancer treatment procedures?
What is the impact of implementing TRLs on treatment outcomes and patient safety?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant for several reasons. First, it addresses the critical need for standardized TRLs in radiotherapy, which is essential for ensuring the safety and efficacy of cancer treatment. The establishment of TRLs will provide a benchmark for radiation doses, reducing the risk of overexposure or underexposure and improving patient outcomes.
Second, the findings from this study will contribute to the development of guidelines and policies for radiotherapy practices, particularly in regions where such standards are lacking. This will help to harmonize treatment protocols across different facilities, leading to more consistent and reliable patient care.
Finally, the study will provide valuable insights into the factors influencing radiation dose variations, which can inform future research and improvements in radiotherapy practices.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is limited to the establishment of Therapeutic Reference Levels for common cancer treatment procedures in radiotherapy facilities. The study will focus on a selected number of radiotherapy centers, with an emphasis on those treating the most common types of cancer, such as breast, prostate, lung, and colorectal cancers. Data will be collected through a combination of surveys, clinical data analysis, and expert consultations.
1.7 Definition of Terms
Therapeutic Reference Levels (TRLs): Benchmark radiation dose levels established for specific medical procedures to ensure safe and effective treatment.
Radiotherapy: A cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors.
Radiation Dose: The amount of radiation energy absorbed by a patient’s tissues during treatment.
Cancer Treatment Procedures: Medical interventions aimed at treating cancer, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.
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ASSESSMENT OF DEPRESSION AMONG RADIOGRAPHERS IN EASTERN NIGERIA
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘radiography’ covers many types of imagery examinations including X-rays, which look through your bones, cavities and any foreign objects that might have found their way into your system; an MRI scan, which builds a 2D or 3D map of the tissue in your body; an angiography, which looks into the blood vessels in your body; and an ultrasound scan, which, for instance, can monitor a developing baby in pregnancy and is probably one of the most commonly known methods of radiography.
Performing, interpreting and reporting of radiography requires specialist training so that doctors have a sound knowledge of technology, the anatomy of the human body, physiology and pathology. Specialist doctors are known as ‘radiographers’ or ‘sonographers’.
Given the crucial role that radiography plays in healthcare, particularly in the diagnosis of injuries and conditions, and that the results will influence the treatment a patient will receive subsequently, it is vital that these tests are performed, interpreted and reported accurately. Unfortunately, this is not always the case and can result in injuries / conditions being misdiagnosed or missed altogether, leading to inappropriate treatment, or no treatment at all.
Naomi Holland, an associate in the clinical negligence team at Penningtons Manches, comments: “Statistics show that a majority of A&E attendances each year relate to orthopaedic related injuries, including dislocations / joint injury, fracture and amputation. X-rays play a key role in diagnosing patients in A&E and will help doctors assess the most appropriate course of treatment both in the immediate and in the long-term – including whether referral should be made to the fracture clinic. While many patients attending A&E are appropriately diagnosed and treated through the use of radiography, some of our clients have unfortunately had their injuries misdiagnosed through poor performance and interpretation of X-rays which can result in significant complications, including worsening of their injuries and in some cases complications such as irreversible nerve injury.
“Many A&E departments adopt a procedure known as ‘safety netting’ where scans and X-rays are reviewed shortly after a patient’s discharge, with the aim of detecting any cases where a patient’s injury / condition has not been appropriately diagnosed. If necessary, the patient will be asked to re-attend the hospital for further investigation. While this procedure has detected many cases where a patient has not received the right diagnosis, unfortunately, it does not always work.”
There may have been previous researches in this subject. This work gives further explanations and analysis in assessment of depression among radiographers in eastern nigeria
H0: There is no relationship between depression and work productivity of radiographers in eastern Nigeria.
H1: There is a relationship between depression and work productivity of radiographers in eastern Nigeria.
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PREVALENCE OF LOW BACK PAIN AMONG PRACTISING RADIOGRAPHERS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Estimates of LBP prevalence in children and adolescents vary widely between studies depending on the age of study participants, and on methodological differences—particularly in terms of LBP definition. Watson et al report a one month period prevalence of 24% in schoolchildren aged 11–14 years in northwest England,5 whereas Balagué et al show the one year prevalence to be 26% in schoolchildren aged 12–17 years in Switzerland.6 Salminen et al show the one year prevalence of LBP “with limitation to activity” to be 17.6% in 14 year old Finnish children;7 also in Finland, Taimela et al report a prevalence of 18%, using the same definition.8 Even studies that record pain over a very short time interval (for example, point prevalence) reveal that as many as 1 child in 20 may be suffering from LBP at any one time.9–11 As in adults, prevalence of LBP in childhood increases with age and has been shown repeatedly to be higher in girls than in boys.5,9,12–14
1.2 Statement of the problem
Although it is difficult to measure LBP incidence, studies have shown that “new onset” LBP is also common. A recent study revealed that 19% of children aged 11–14 years, and known to be free of symptoms at baseline, reported LBP 12 months subsequently.15 Other authors have presented similar results with 16%, 22%, and 22% of 8, 11, and 13 year olds, respectively, reporting new onset LBP two years after initial assessment. This work gives more information in the subject
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the impact of low back pain on the health status of children and adolescents
2. To understand the relationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
1.4 Research questions
1. What is the impact of low back pain on the health status of children and adolescents
2. What is the relationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
1.5 Research hypothesis
H0: There is norelationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
H1: There is arelationship between low back pain and children academic and health development of children and adolescents
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The constantly changing health care environment, high technology and high cost of care provision are few factors affecting nursing practice today(Murray, 2010). Hospitals face the problem of how to strategize to achieve their goals in this competitive and changing healthcare environment. This often means constant organizational change to meet new health care challenges. Pressures to provide quality care while cost reduction measures are frequently implemented, results in high stress levels for nurses in the workplace. In addition, constant changes inevitably place considerable pressure on nurse leaders to both adapt and proactively engage their subordinates to embrace changes in the face of acute staff shortages and in some poor cases,that slowly evolving work environment. These combined factors within the hospital arena maycontribute to the lack of satisfaction nurses experience with their jobs. As remarked by Sherman (2010), this scenario desperately calls for new leaders, leaders who inspire others with the vision of what can be accomplished. In order to move forward and survive in the face of these challenges, nurse managers and their subordinates must establish positive and mutually beneficial relationships that favour increased efficiency, productivity, and job satisfaction. Quality nursing leadership is seen as a predictor of job satisfaction (Giallonardo, Wong &Iwasiw, 2010).
Job satisfaction has been described as the most important predictor for nurses’ intention to remain in their work place and is related to the feeling of employees and can be influenced by factors such as the quality of their relationship with their supervisor or employer, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, or the degree of fulfilment in their work (Edwards, Bexley & Richardson, 2011, Ritter, 2010; Mackusick&Minick, 2010).The nurse manager (NM) is officially charged with leadership of a health unit in a hospital system. No one else influences the whole health unit operation and the degree of responsiveness of both the nurses and patients than nurse managers. The quality of patient care, as well as staff recruitment and retention success are the key roles of a nurse manager (Olanrewaju, 2012). NMs as leaders,plan, coordinate and supervise day to day activities and general welfare of the nurses and patients. Their activities positively or negatively affect patient care delivery. The leadership style, skills and abilities of nurse managers are critical to the smooth operation of nursing units, the success of the hospital and by implication the entire healthcare system.
Leadership style has become an important topic of study in the management field. A good leader guides subordinates to work effectively toward organizational goals. According to Schimmoeller (2010) and Fatokun, Salaam and Ajegbomogun(2010), leadership styles can be viewed as series of managerial attitudes, behaviours, characteristics and skills based on individual and organizational values, leadership interests and reliability of employees in
different situations. Organizational success in obtaining its goals and objectives depends on managers and their leadership style.
There are several styles of leadership such as autocratic, bureaucratic, laissez-faire, charismatic, democratic, participative, situational, transactional, and transformational leadership. Not everyone agrees that a particular style of leadership will result in the most effective form of organizational behaviour. Different styles are needed for different situations and each leader needs to know when to exhibit a particular approach. Transformational and transactional leadership behaviours are known as the new leadership theories and are used by most academics who study organizational leadership(Kozier, 2007).By using appropriate leadership styles, managers can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.
The relationship between a manager’s leadership and subordinate/employees job satisfaction is well documented (Hall, 2007; Christmas, 2008 &Ma, Lee, Yang & Chang, 2009). Job satisfaction is related to the feeling of employees and can be influenced by factors such as the quality of their relationship with their supervisor or employer, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, or the degree of fulfilment in their work. Job satisfaction can be considered from a global perspective, such as the feelings and emotions perceived by the individual employee based on work experiences (Cowin, Johnson, Craven & Marsh, 2008). It can also be explored through a facet approach- studying employee attitude towards various aspects (facets) of
their jobs. Hegney, Plank and Parker (2006) described two aspects of values,
intrinsic and extrinsic where intrinsic values refer to satisfaction inherent in the work itself (immaterial aspects of the job) such as job variety and autonomy and extrinsic values refer to material work aspects such as salary and opportunity for promotion. Job satisfaction is therefore the result of an evaluation of whether ones job meets ones needs. If one feels dissatisfied, searching for and accepting another place to work will likely occur. Job satisfaction has been described as the most important predictor for nurses’ intention to remain in their work place (Larrabee, Janney, Ostrow, Withrow, Hobbs &Burant, 2003).
Previous studies on the relationship between nurse managers’ leadership style and nurse job satisfaction byTobak andKoprak(2007) found that transformational leadership style exhibited by nurse managers in Israeli public hospitals was best suited for conflict management in an innovative but understaffed system. Similarly, a significant correlation was found to exist, in a study carried out by Sellgren (2007), between nurse manager’s leadership behaviour and job satisfaction in the Karolinska hospital in Stockholm. If the leadership style necessary to manage the present challenging nurses’ work environment is lacking, there is a potential for continued increase in the nursing shortage and its attendant grave consequences.
In the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH) ItukuOzalla, the researcher observed gross shortage of nurses in all the nursing units. The record from the nursing service department shows a total number of 588 nurses in UNTH of which 444 were deployed to 26 wards and special clinics of the hospital as at the time of this study. The researcher also observed that, in a ward of 28 to 30 patients, 2 to 3 nurses were seen caring for patients during the day as against 1:6 ratio recommended by WHO (2011) and 1:4-5 (for general wards) and 1:1-3 ( for intensive care units) recommended by Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria (N&MCN, 2005). Records from the department also revealed that 80 nurses left UNTH within the past 3 years (2009-2012). Although death and retirement were contributory to this situation, voluntary resignations also accounted forstaff loss during the period. Nursing staff shortage in UNTH is therefore, obvious given by these statistics. Hall (2007) explained that some of the reasons for nursing staff shortage are due to work stress, physical demands/workload, lack of advancement opportunities, and low pay. MacKusick and Minick (2010) went further to suggest that some of the reasons for the shortage include job dissatisfaction and the challenging relationships among members of the healthcare team. Since a causal relationship has been shown to exist between relationships amongst the healthcare team and job satisfaction by some authors (Cowin, 2008, Ritter, 2010), the leadership style exhibited by nurse managers can either enhance or
retard job satisfaction. This suggests that the acute nursing staff shortage in
UNTH, which is exacerbated by mass loss of nurses due to retirement, may affect the services and job satisfaction of nurses. It is therefore, necessary to empirically determine the leadership styles employed by the nurse managers in UNTH and also how these styles relate with job satisfaction of nurses in this situation of acute shortage of nurses observed in (UNTH) ItukuOzalla Enugu.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between perceived leadership styles of nurse managers and job satisfaction of nurses in University of Nigeria Teaching hospitals, Ituku-Ozalla Enugu
The following null hypotheses guided the study:
This study will be of great significance to the nurse managers, nurse administrators, patients and the hospital. The finding from this study willprovide a basis for the determination of appropriate leadership style(s) to be used by nurse managers, capable of enhancing job satisfaction nation-wide. Findings from this study can be utilized to educate nurse managers on effective leadership styles and how these styles affect job satisfaction of nurses. By
implementing preferred leadership styles, job satisfaction of nurses will
increase, lowering turnover rates in hospitals and an overall decrease in the amount of money spent for hiring and orientating new employees. For nurse administrators, the results of this study have numerous implications for management practice. Nurses’ satisfaction will be seen by the patient in the form of increased patient care quality. This will in turn create increased patient satisfaction and will reflect a positive view of the hospital by the community. The hospital will also benefit from the satisfaction of registered nurses as seen by an increase in productivity, efficiency and retention.
This study focused on the relationship between leadership styles of nurse managers and job satisfaction of nurses. It was confined to examining the relationship between transformational, transactional and laissez faire leadership styles on one hand and job satisfaction of nurses on the other. Twenty-six wards in UNTH, where direct nursing care is applied was examined. The study was delimited to nursing personnel categorized into management and subordinate cadres who have spent a minimum period of two years in the wards.
For the purpose of this study the following terms were defined operationally: Leadership style: This strictly refers to the transformational, transactional and laissez-faireleadership styles.
Transformational leadership: is a synthesis of all leadership styles that are essentially employee oriented and includes participatory, democratic, charismatic and situational leadership styles.
Transactional leadership:refers to all leadership styles that are strictly production centred and includes autocratic and bureaucratic leadership styles. Laissez-faire leadership:refers to all leadership styles that are passive in nature whereby the leader adopts a hands-off approach to leadership.
Job satisfaction:refers to the feeling a nurse has about the job being performed. In other words what the nurse likes or dislikes about the job. General characteristics of the job such as pay, promotion, supervision, working conditions and relationships with co-workers were examined.
Nurse Managers: refers to nurses who are in-charge of wards/units and range from the ACNO, CNO to the Deputy Director Nursing (DDN) cadre.
Nurses: refers to non-managerial cadre of nurses in UNTH. They are any of the Principal Nursing Officers (PNO), Senior Nursing Officers (SNO),Senior Nursing Officers (SNO), Senior Nursing Sisters (SNS), Nursing Officer I and II, Nursing Sisters working in UNTH.
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THE EVALUATION OF THE EXPECTATIONS OF GRADUATING RADIOGRAPHY STUDENTS IN SELECTED NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES
ABSTRACT
This work discusses the evaluation of the expectations of graduating radiography students in selected Nigeria universities. A hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed among radiography students from selected Nigeria institutions. Interviews and surveys were also conducted.
Primary and secondary data will be used in the analysis. Tables and percentages will also be used as the instrument of analysis
It will be observed therefore that the technical competence of radiography students is in high demand in the public health industry in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
Bibliography
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