BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
THE ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NEMATODE AFFECTING TOMATOES GROWN IN SOME SELECTED AREA OF RIVER KADUNA IN KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
Four (4) sites or area were sampled, using the”simple random sampling technique” to make up the study group namely; Malali, Ungwan Rimi, Stadium round about, Kawo for soil or root-not nematodes from tomatoes plant. Ten (10) plants uprooted randomly at each site(s) visited making a total of forty (40) plants were isolation and identification of nematodes was done at the Department of Crop Protection, Institute of Agricultural Research (I.A.R.) Ahmadu Bello University Zaria base on movement action, tail, shape and a tutorial book. Result obtained shared occurrence of nematodes as follows; Malali, 342; Ungwan Rimi 40; Stadium Round About, 66; Kawo, 261; making a total of 708 nematodes. Of this number, Crieonemoides accounted for 7(0.990Co); Helicotylenchus 544 (76.840Co); Meloidogyne larva 62 (8.760Co); Pratylenchus 19 (2-680Co); Rotylenchus 64 (9.040Co) and Tylenchus 12 (1.690Co). the researcher; considering the negative effect of these on the yield/production of tomatoes, suggests/profers/and also, when transplanting, intercropping.
CHAPTER ONE
Nematodes are tiny, thread-like worms measuring 0.0 15 inch to 0.187 inch in length. They are either free living parasitic or saprophytic, identified on the basis of shapes, size and special structures. The females become swollen and flask-shaped as a result of accumulation of eggs with the anus virtually terminal in position, while the males are vermiform (Sherf and Macnah, 1986; Chitwood, 1949; Taylor and Sasser, 1978; Idowu, 1979 and Idowu, 1983)
Nematodes are known for causing destructive diseases of crops as they have a wide range of feeding habit, constitute about 80% of all multicellular animals, attacking nearly every crop that is grown in the field and as a result crop yields is greatly affected reducing quantity and quality of crops on field, orchard, home garden and green houses (Mai, 1985; Symth, 1994; Sasser, 1952). Among the favoured host in Nigeria as a whole include tomato, yam, tobacco, papaw, citrus and sweet potato (Sasser, 1954).
1.1 Tomato:
Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) belongs to the family Solanaceae and subilass polypetalae of the dicotyledenous group of plants. Tomato is a slight modification of tomato the name used by the Indians of Mexico, who have grown the plant for food since prehistoric times. Other names reported by early European explorers were tomato, tumatle and tomatas, probably variants of Indian words (Wener, 2004).
1.2 Origin:
The precise origin of tomato remains a mystery but there is reason to believe that the original tomato came from Peru called tomato, it was taken to Mexico by migrating Peruvians. It found its way to Italy through the explorations of Christopher Columbus. Tomatoes were taken back to Europe along with silver and gold and they were grown on the continent as a pretty curiosity (Fallagatter, 1999). Though, tomato has become one of the most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world (Chung, 1998), until the 19th century, it was grown chiefly as an ornamental plant for its colourful fruit (Villareal, 1980). This is because it was regarded with suspicion due to the reputation of Solanum-like fruits being poisonous (Philips and Rix, 1993)
1.3 Study Area:
Kaduna is the State capital of Kaduna State in north central Nigeria. The city, located on the Kaduna River, is a trade center and a major transportation hub for the surrounding agricultural areas with its rail and road junction.
The Kaduna River is a tributary of the Niger River which flows for 550 kilometers through Nigeria. It got its name from the crocodiles that lived in the river and surrounding area. Kaduna in the native dialect, Hausa, was the word for “crocodile ’’(http:// maguzawa.dyndns.ws/ Retrieved on 2009-07-09). Activities going on there includes; fishing, packing of sand and farming such as maize, tomato, spinach, cocoa-yam, okro, pepper etc.
1.4 Purpose of the study:
The destruction of plants comes from organisms including nematode and insect pest. However, this study is restricted only to those plant nematodes that affect tomatoes grown in some selected area of River Kaduna. Many plants are damage by plant parasitic nematodes which feeds and multiply in or on root, stem spreading soil borne viruses or facilitate secondary infection by bacteria and algae.
All kind of living organisms are dependent on plants in one way or the other for their food supply. Therefore, controlling nematode that destroy our crops, it is almost important both agriculturally, economically and socially for well being of both living organism. Although important contributions in nematology are coming in from many countries. Like Nigeria, generally expanded it is in view of hope that it help in one way or the other in preventing or controlling plants nematodes, as the knowledge of the nematodes themselves is important toward successful nematode control.
1.5 Aims and objectives:
– To isolate and identify nematode
– To determine the distribution or assessment of nematode populations
– Proper suggestion on minimizing infection.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
HOUSEHOLD WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN ZARIA CITY
KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
In Nigeria and particularly in Zaria city of Kaduna state, open dumping is still the most common household waste disposal method/practice. This type of practice is un hygienic and environmentally unfriendly. This research is aimed at effective household waste management practices in the study area. The research found that there are some other types of management or disposal method in practice in the study area, these include the use of packing and burning, dumping in pits outside the house and dumping in streets by residents, wheel barrows. Also included are scavengers, Ministry of Environment and private organizations that are involved in household waste. Data for the study include the use of observations, questionnaire administration and oral interviews in data gathering and analysis. The research, recommends that the state government should provide household waste management equipment and vehicles, generators on loan for waste management authorities. Waste management such as the construction of sanitary land fills, purchase of incinerators for recycling plants, encourage waste to wealth practices as this would actually reduce the amount of waste that would be physically available in the study area.
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE … … … i
DECLARATION … … … ii
CERTIFICATION … … … iii
APPROVAL PAGE … … … iv
DEDICATION … … … v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT … … vi
ABSTRACT … … … vii
TABLE OF CONTENT … … … viii
LIST OF FIGURES … … … xi
LIST OF TABLES … … … xii
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review … … 15
2.1 Introduction … … 15
2.2 Studies of households solid waste generator … 16
2.3 Waste generation and disposal … 19
2.4 Studies of the composition household solid waste … 20
2.5 Studies of factors affecting solid waste management and disposal 25
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology … … 27
3.1 Introduction … … 27
3.2 The reconnaissance survey … … 27
3.3 Selection of house hold and respondents … 28
3.4 Design of Questionnaire … … 29
3.5 Statistical analysis and result … … 30
3.6 Problem of Data Collection … … 31
CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction … … 32
4.2 Socio demographic profile of respondents … 32
4.3 Household waste generation and management … 33
4.4 Awareness on waste Management … 39
CHAPTER FIVE – Summary, Conclusion AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction … … 41
5.2 Summary and Major finding … … 41
5.3 Conclusion … … 43
5.4 Recommendation … … 43
REFERENCES
Appendix
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig1: Nigeria showing Kaduna state
Fig2: Kaduna state showing Zaria local government
Fig 3: The study Area (Zaria City)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Solid waste generation by land uses 17
Table 2.2: Average composition of residential solid wastes by
percentage of total weight 21
Table 2.3: Result of Santa Monica Solid waste 22
Table 2.4: Solid waste composition in Ibadan Onitsha and Jos 23
Table 2.5: Changes in solid waste composed by percentage
weight in Ibadan 24
Table 3.1: Number of dwelling units, and sample of households taken 29
Table 4.2.1: Socio demographic profile of respondents 32
Table 4.2.2: Frequency distribution of educational background 33
Table 4.2.3: Occupational structure of the respondent 33
Table 4.3.1: Frequency distribution of the types of household waste generated 33
Table 4.3.2: Frequency distribution on the use of refuse in a household 35
Table 4.3.3: Frequency distribution on the nature of refuse bin 36
Table 4.3.4: Frequency distribution on how often refuse bins are
Emptied in the study area 36
Table 4.3.5: Frequency distribution on the respondents awareness
of household waste collection points 37
Chart 4.3.6 Bar chart showing how resident dispose their household waste 38
Chart4.3.7 Pie chart showing the authorities responsible for household
waste collection 39
Table 4.3.8: Frequency distribution about the environment health officials 39
Table 4.3.9: Frequency distribution on cont cases abut environment
sanitation 39
Table 4.4.1: Frequency distribution about sources of awareness
on waste management
Table 4.4.2 Frequency distribution on the factors responsible for
dumping of household waste 40
CHAPTER ONE
One of the greatest hazards of man today is poor sanitary condition of his environment, which is being caused by his daily activities, such as waste generation, increase in population and attendant increase in agricultural, industrial and commercial activities.
Wastes are substances, materials or objects discarded as worthless or unwanted, defective or of no further value for human economic productive, activities or processes (Okechukwu, 1995).
U.S AD-Hoc Group for science and technology (1969), and Adegoke (1990) defined waste as substances and materials or objects which are disposed off according to the provision of a national law. Basically, wastes can exist in three different states-gaseous, liquid and solid. The people are more sensitive to solid waste than to the others. This is because solid wastes have the potential of accumulating and physically insulting the environment.
In the past, the advance effects of human activities were spread over large expense of land and sea. With the measure increase in pollution in recent times and the growth of cities and rapid industrialization, waste discharge have multiplies concentrated at a few model points.
Solid wastes are unwanted materials that cannot flow directly into steams or rise immediately in the air. They are non-liquid, non-gaseous residues of manufacturing, construction, cooking, recreation, agriculture and other activities that use and then discard materials.
They include glasses, bottles, outdated newspapers, carton, plastic, bottles, abandoned automobiles and automobiles parts, discarded cooking utensils, wraps, dead animals et cet era.
Effective solid waste management is achievable only when socio-economic factors are integrated into solid waste management studies. This approach would, according to Hudson and Marks (1977), make it possible to predict not only the expenditure pattern of a household and how much waste would be generated by each particular item consumed, but also the qualities of wastes generated by household. The first note worthy attempt at studying this problem based on this approach was made by Boyd and Hawkins (1971) With limited success, it would be argued that this approach may make it possible to transform the data generated into an input a national solid waste generation projection since that household is the basic wait of consumption and waste generation. Projection of this nature would assist urban environmental planner to better and rationally tackle this problem of waste urban areas. In addition, waste management agencies may use the results of such studies as an instrument for improving or initiating innovations in waste management practices.
It is the realization of the need to highlight the socio-economic aspects of wastes generation and management and their implication for solid wastes managements that provided a case for the present study of Zaria city area of Kaduna state.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Improper waste management leads to pollution and subsequently degradation of the environment. It also adds substances that affect the environment, which because of their nature and quantity constitute a menace to the health and well being of the individuals, the society and the environment as a whole. The Environmental Act of the United Kingdom defines waste as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends to discard (Freeman, 1990).
The available infrastructure for absorbing wastes generated by urban dwellers in Nigeria is grossly inadequate, consequently uncontrolled proliferation of solid wastes dumps is a common feature of most Nigerian cities. These solid wastes appears in various sizes. For example, they could be small, medium, or large depending on the number of households that the dumps serve. In most cases, these dumps are located at the backyards of the dwelling units, roadsides, gutters, streams, abandoned buildings and so on.
Most solid waste dumps are usually invaded by scavenging animals which scatter the wastes to make them breeding grounds for disease vector such as rats and flies. Besides direct contamination of water bodies by these waste, leachartes from decomposing and purifying solid wastes percolate into soil and nearby water sources which could cause disease to humans when consumed. This is particularly the case of un-collected solid wastes which find their way either back to the neighborhoods or into open river channels which become blocked, thus creating favorable breeding grounds for mosquitoes and in some cases block drainage ways, causing floods.
For solid wastes to be effectively managed to ensure the acceptable level of environmental quality required for sustainable growth and development in the urban settings, developing or applying accurate methods of estimating the amount of waste generated and disposed constitute a fertile area of research.
Such methods require accurate information on the types and quantities of solid wastes, generated by households the socio economic profiles of the household waste management systems and mechanisms used by the households and the waste disposal strategies.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Household waste generation increases due to increase in population and household activities. The cost of maintaining the environmental quality also increases as government now have much more wastes to dispose.
Household waste management and practice is amongst the problems affecting Zaria City. Despite the setting up of Kaduna State Environmental Protection Agency (KEPA), the situation has remain largely characterized by indiscriminate dumping of wastes, such as food waste, paper, polythene, scrap mutals et cet era, in virtually everything every part of of the area and have constituted problems like heap waste which can cause road/rail blockage, air pollution, open air burning, leach ate which has adversely affected the general aesthetic nature of the environment. This problem also causes some health related problems due to the incidence of improper waste management practices such as cholera, typhoid, malaria and diahroea for solid wastes to be effectively managed to incur the acceptable level of environment in the urban settings developing or applying accurate methods of estimating the amounts of waste generated and disposed constitute a fertile area of research.
Such methods require accurate information on the types and quantities of solid waste generated by household waste management systems mechanisms used by the households and the knowledge, the information required for proper household waste generation, management and disposal in Zaria city is locking. The research questions predicating the study are:
1.3 AIM
The aim of this research is to examine the types of household solid waste management practices with a view of indentify the most appropriation method for Zaria City.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The aim of the research will be achieved through the following objectives;
1.5 JUSTIFICATION
The world is becoming increasingly urbanized. The outbreak of diseases and the associated environmental problems are increasing in frequency and magnitude. However, government at the local, state and federal levels with non-governmental agencies have shared little concern to the issue of improper household waste management in the study area. The research therefore, intends to suggest a better waste management practice in the study area.
In the study area, much solid wastes are being generated by the households on daily basis. The waste is usually left un cleared for about two weeks before the waste are reluctantly rumpled into gutters or at the designated sites. The households use various methods in during this. This ranges from drums and buckets to refuse bin with lid or without lid and packed by boys using wheel barrows to empty it.
This methods seen not to be affective, this is due to the fact that the refuse/ wastes smell in the compound and eventually leads to outbreak of disease such as diarrhea, cholera et cet era.
This work shall therefore suggest a better practice of waste management in the study area.
This will go along way to eliminate the effects of late evacuation of waste, either from the compounds or at the designated points.
1.6 STUDY AREA
1.6.1 LOCATION
Zaria is one of the major cities in Kaduna state and the second largest after Kaduna with a total population of 408,198 (NPC, 2006). It lies between the co-ordinates of 11o-04on and 7o42e. Here it shares common boundaries with Soba local government to the east, Igabi local Government to the south, Giwa local Government to the west and Sabon Gari Local Government to the north, (fig 2) Zaria is linked by both rail way and good roads, which serve as a link to many other states in the north.
1.6.2 Geology and relief
The Zaria area is a dissected point of north central plains, an extensive peneplain in developed loamy stalline by stalling metamorphic rocks of the Nigerian basement complex.
Residual granite inset bergs, the largest of which is Kufena hill, provide the main relief and there are 100 quartzite fidgets in the west.
An extensive older laterite cover of possible Pliocene age (du preey, undated) is known preserved as low scarp bounded plateau remnants, mainly on interfluves in the western half of the area. Dissect of this older pen peneplain laterite and format of the younger late rite and older alluvium are the result of Pleistocene erosion cycles.
The eastern part of the area is dreamed by the south ward flowing Galma River and its tributaries. The western limit of the Galma catchment basin crosses the map from the middle of the southern boundary to the North West corner.
1.6.3 SOIL
Higher up the slope, the drainage Condition improves and the soils are generally reddish in color, metals are completely absent or a few may occur at great depth, iron concentrations are also not common.
Lower down the slope, the soil gradually become greyer in color while the mottled horizon occurs nearer to the surface. The number of iron concentrations also increase and in some places an iron pan can be seen out roping at lower slops positions. This indicates that iron is not only moved vertically down the profile, but also laterally down the slope.
Locally, in lower slope positions some grey clay soils have been formed. These have a strongly developed coarse blocky structure and may contain calcium carbonate concentrations. The reason why these soils occur here cannot yet be fully explained. They may be influenced by local differences in parent rock or they may have been formed under a previous drier climate.
1.6.4 VEGETATION
The re-growth of woody individuals following cultivation is the foundation on which to base a series of communities in the Zaria area. For in the various characters of the plants concerned are to be found the factors for survival.
Many savanna species are able to produce profuse sucker and coppice rowth when the main trunk is cut and because so many of the same species have wide spread horizontal root systems this leads, with constant cutting, to a proliferation of scrub, composed of many small re growths. Associated with this habit is the ability to survive in a suffrutex form for many years. The arid shoots are burnt off or destroyed each year while of the underground root system enlarges and stores food material and water. Relaxation of damage enables the shoots from the crown of the root stock to grow rapidly and establish scrub growth. This growth often has in the early stages much larger leaves and longer inter nodes than is normal for the species.
Many of the seedlings of the trees involved also survive in their early stages in a similar way. An extreme example is that of butyrospermum paradoxum which on germination actually buries the plumage and then survives for many years as a suppressed growth before finally becoming a tree. (Jackson,1969).
1.6.5 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
The part of Nigeria where Zaria lies is invaded by two distinct air masses, one from the north-dry and continental in origin, the Saharan air mass and the other from over the Atlantic in the south must, cool and equatorial maritime in nature.
The weather depends, to a large extent, on the air mass which covers the area and its depth. These two air masses form a discontinuity zone at their boundary.
The animal rhythm of weather in Zaria follows the annual march of the surface position of ITD. Statistical averages of weather elements would fail to portray the climatic picture of Zaria. It is rather, the weather sequence in a season and sometimes its extremes which convey a realistic picture of the weather and climate of Zaria.
DRY SEASON – by the middle of November, in most years ITD moves south of Zaria and the dry continental north-easterly or easterly air replaces the moist south westerly air from the surface. ITD oscillates, moving forward and backward, before it finally moves south of Zaria. As a result, the surface air, at times, becomes dry north easterly and the others, humid south westerly with the beginning of the dry season the ‘sticky’ heat of September October is over.
HOT SEASON – ITD starts its northward movement in February and by late March or early April it crosses the latitude of Zaria. At this time there is a thug-of-war between the mE air from the south and the cTs air from the north to take control of the surface around Zaria, so in march and early April the surface winds recorded in Zaria are sometimes south-westerly and sometimes north-easterly. The movement of ITD north of Zaria is marked, firstly by a change in the direction of the surface winds and secondly by a sudden group in the moisture content of the surface air.
1.6.6 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Economic activities found in Zaria includes farming (rainfall and irrigation) such as maize, millet, guinea corn, vegetables among others. Other activities include administrative work, banking services, teaching, industries, and animal rearing (such as cattle, sheep, goat and horses).
Among the major industries located in Zaria include the British American Tobacco, Zazzau pharmaceutical industry, Zazzau gunnery mills and other several small scale industries such as bricks and furniture making.
The main types of land are found in the Zaria area: gona or upland fields which support, during the wet season only. Crops of relatively low value per acre such as millet, guinea corn, groundnut, and cotton. And Fadama or low land fields which support, throughout the year, more labor-intensive, higher value per acre crops such as sugar-cone.
1.6.7 THE PEOPLE
The dominant people of Zaria city are Hausa. Others are Nupe, Yoruba, Fulani et cet era. There are Angwans Nupawa, which was established by Nupe immigrants, limanchin Kona, iya populated by Arabs and Kanuri immigrants, Kaura and Amaru from Borno and people from southern Zaria (Kaje, Kurawa, Kaduna among others). (fig 3).
The diversity of ethnic groups made Zaria to grow into what is now generally referred to as cosmopolitan city (Sunday, 2007).
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
HALITOSIS AMONG STUDENT IN SHEHU IDRIS COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, MAKARFI, KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
Infact, the aim of this study is to create awareness on the Halitosis among students in SICHST Makarfi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. Halitosis or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant odor exhaled in breathing. Halitosis is a condition affecting both male and female in all ages, Halitosis can cause by eating of certain foods, like cooked eggs, garlic, onions, smoking and drinking alcohol, which when absorbed into our blood stream, are transferred to the lungs and exhaled breath will be produced as bad breath, suffering from some systemic disease such as liver, kidney, diabetic mellitus, and digestive track infection whereby gases are blocked from passing the stomach or intestines.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page – – – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – ii
Approval Page – – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – v
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – vii
Table of Contents – – – – – – – – viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study – – – – – – – 1
Statement of the Problems – – – – – – – 4
Purpose of the Study – – – – – – – – 5
Significance of the Study – – – – – – – 5
Research Questions – – – – – – – – 6
Scope of the Study – – – – – – – – 6
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE – – – – 7
History – – – – – – – – – – 7
Causes – – – – – – – – – – 10
Types – – – – – – – – – – 14
Sign and Symptoms – – – – – – – – 15
Diagnosis – – – – – – – – – – 16
Prevention and Control – – – – – – – 20
Management – – – – – – – – – 23
CHAPTER III – – – – – – – – – 27
Research Design – – – – – – – – 27
Area of the Study – – – – – – – – 28
Population of the Study – – – – – – – 29
Sample and Sampling Technique – – – – – – 30
Instrument for Data Collection – – – – – – 30
Validity of the Instrument – – – – – – – 31
Reliability of the Instrument – – – – – – 31
Procedure for Data Collection – – – – – – 32
Procedure for Data Analysis – – – – – – 32
CHAPTER IV
Data Presentation and Analysis – – – – – – 34
CHAPTER V
Summary – – – – – – – – – – 38
Discussion – – – – – – – – – – 39
Finding – – – – – – – – – – 40
Recommendations – – – – – – – – 40
Suggestions – – – – – – – – – 41
Conclusion – – – – – – – – – – 41
References – – – – – – – – – – 43
Questionnaire – – – – – – – – – 45
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Halitosis or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant odor exhaled in breathing (Gage, 2007).
Halitosis can be important social problem in which the standard dental treatment and mouth wash that are often recommended provide only temporary relief. The smell is from an oral source due to bacterial activities (Rosemberg, 2002).
Oral malodor is primarily the result of microbial metabolism, the mouth is a home of hundreds of bacterial species with various nutritional preferences. The most common location for mouth related halitosis is the tongue. Tongue bacterial produce malordor and fatty acid and count for about 80 to 90 percent of all cases of mouth related bad breath. Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are often found on the dorsum of the tongue, where they are relatively undisturbed by normal activities. This part of the tongue is relatively dry and poorly cleansed and bacterial populations can thrive on remnants of food deposits, dead epithelial cells and post nasal drip. The convoluted microbial structure of the tongue dorsum provides an ideal habitat for anaerobic bacterial, which flourish under a continually – forming tongue coating of food debris, dead cells, post nasal drip and overlying bacteria living and dead when left on the tongue the anaerobic respiration of such bacterial can yield either the putrescent smell of indole, skatole, methyl mercapton, alloymethyl sulfide and dimethyl sulfide (Tonzentich, 1997).
The organism digest protein, and several fatid substance arise leading to bad breath. Oral malodor from the overgrowth of proteolytic, anerobic gram negative bacterial the creavices of the tongue dorsum can be successfully diagnosed and treated (Lochner et al, 2000).
There are several causes of halitosis although the main one is oral bacterial over 90 million people suffer from chronic halitosis which is medical term for bad breath in most cases halitosis originate from the gums and tongue, caused by bacterial from the decay of food particles, other debris in the mouth and poor oral hygiene. In most cases (85-90%) bad breath originate in the mouth itself.
The intensity of bad breath differ during the day, due to eating of certain foods such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, egg, cheese, smoking and alcohol consumption, since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is in active during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening (morning breath). Bad breath may be transient of ten disappearing following brushing teeth, flushing or rinsing with special mouth wash (Tammy Devenport, 2007).
Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath). Which is a more serious condition affecting some 25 percent of the population in varying degrees. It can negatively affect the individual’s personal, social and business relationship leading to poor self esteem and increased stress. Halitosis is a medical term for bad breath and this is quite serious as a social disorder. Halitosis can cause extremely embarrassing situation in social interaction and relationship at work and in your personal life as well (Lell et al, 2006).
However, some bad breath seem to be associated with local pathological causes such as gingivitis (especially ANUG), periodontal disease, infected extraction sockets, or other types of oral species. In some cases, other possibilities that favour oral malodor are the presence of residual blood post operatively, debris under bridge or appliances, ulcer, dry mouth, and perfection of post nasal mucus drip stagnating on the tongue (Wd Kazor, 2002).
Various methods used to control halitosis (bad breath) the most widely-known reason to clean the tongue is for the control of bad breath. Method used against bad breath, such as mints, mouth sprays and mouth wash, may only temporarily mask the odour created by the bacteria on the tongue but cannot cure bad breath because they don’t remove the source of bad breath, in order to prevent the production of the sulfur – containing compounds mention above the bacteria on the tongue must be removed regularly. Most people who clean their tongue use a (tongue scraper) or a tooth brush (Dent Hes, 2007).
Statement of the Problems
Eating of certain foods, like cooked eggs, garlic, onion which when absorbed into our blood stream, are transferred to the lungs and exhaled breath will be produced as bad breath.
Suffering from some systemic diseases such as liver and kidney, diabetic mellitus, digestive track infection whereby gases are blocked from passing the stomach or intestines.
When mouth is dry, saliva production decreases leaving the mouth natural ability to clean itself impaired. Saliva is mouth’s natural mouth wash which contain properties that keep the mouth clean.
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to find out the occurrence of halitosis among the students in SICHST, Makarfi.
This will help to proffer suggestion in understanding the existing oral health problems and develop oral health programs in the College, and assist oral health practitioners to provide a special oral health services such as oral health talk to entire students in SICHST Makarfi, and also help the management of the College to introduce oral health care in every department.
Research Questions
Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is limited to Halitosis among students in SICHST Makarfi which consist of causes, prevention and treatment.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
THE ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NEMATODE AFFECTING TOMATOES GROWN IN SOME SELECTED AREA OF RIVER KADUNA IN KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
Four (4) sites or area were sampled, using the”simple random sampling technique” to make up the study group namely; Malali, Ungwan Rimi, Stadium round about, Kawo for soil or root-not nematodes from tomatoes plant. Ten (10) plants uprooted randomly at each site(s) visited making a total of forty (40) plants were isolation and identification of nematodes was done at the Department of Crop Protection, Institute of Agricultural Research (I.A.R.) Ahmadu Bello University Zaria base on movement action, tail, shape and a tutorial book. Result obtained shared occurrence of nematodes as follows; Malali, 342; Ungwan Rimi 40; Stadium Round About, 66; Kawo, 261; making a total of 708 nematodes. Of this number, Crieonemoides accounted for 7(0.990Co); Helicotylenchus 544 (76.840Co); Meloidogyne larva 62 (8.760Co); Pratylenchus 19 (2-680Co); Rotylenchus 64 (9.040Co) and Tylenchus 12 (1.690Co). the researcher; considering the negative effect of these on the yield/production of tomatoes, suggests/profers/and also, when transplanting, intercropping.
CHAPTER ONE
Nematodes are tiny, thread-like worms measuring 0.0 15 inch to 0.187 inch in length. They are either free living parasitic or saprophytic, identified on the basis of shapes, size and special structures. The females become swollen and flask-shaped as a result of accumulation of eggs with the anus virtually terminal in position, while the males are vermiform (Sherf and Macnah, 1986; Chitwood, 1949; Taylor and Sasser, 1978; Idowu, 1979 and Idowu, 1983)
Nematodes are known for causing destructive diseases of crops as they have a wide range of feeding habit, constitute about 80% of all multicellular animals, attacking nearly every crop that is grown in the field and as a result crop yields is greatly affected reducing quantity and quality of crops on field, orchard, home garden and green houses (Mai, 1985; Symth, 1994; Sasser, 1952). Among the favoured host in Nigeria as a whole include tomato, yam, tobacco, papaw, citrus and sweet potato (Sasser, 1954).
1.1 Tomato:
Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) belongs to the family Solanaceae and subilass polypetalae of the dicotyledenous group of plants. Tomato is a slight modification of tomato the name used by the Indians of Mexico, who have grown the plant for food since prehistoric times. Other names reported by early European explorers were tomato, tumatle and tomatas, probably variants of Indian words (Wener, 2004).
1.2 Origin:
The precise origin of tomato remains a mystery but there is reason to believe that the original tomato came from Peru called tomato, it was taken to Mexico by migrating Peruvians. It found its way to Italy through the explorations of Christopher Columbus. Tomatoes were taken back to Europe along with silver and gold and they were grown on the continent as a pretty curiosity (Fallagatter, 1999). Though, tomato has become one of the most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world (Chung, 1998), until the 19th century, it was grown chiefly as an ornamental plant for its colourful fruit (Villareal, 1980). This is because it was regarded with suspicion due to the reputation of Solanum-like fruits being poisonous (Philips and Rix, 1993)
1.3 Study Area:
Kaduna is the State capital of Kaduna State in north central Nigeria. The city, located on the Kaduna River, is a trade center and a major transportation hub for the surrounding agricultural areas with its rail and road junction.
The Kaduna River is a tributary of the Niger River which flows for 550 kilometers through Nigeria. It got its name from the crocodiles that lived in the river and surrounding area. Kaduna in the native dialect, Hausa, was the word for “crocodile ’’(http:// maguzawa.dyndns.ws/ Retrieved on 2009-07-09). Activities going on there includes; fishing, packing of sand and farming such as maize, tomato, spinach, cocoa-yam, okro, pepper etc.
1.4 Purpose of the study:
The destruction of plants comes from organisms including nematode and insect pest. However, this study is restricted only to those plant nematodes that affect tomatoes grown in some selected area of River Kaduna. Many plants are damage by plant parasitic nematodes which feeds and multiply in or on root, stem spreading soil borne viruses or facilitate secondary infection by bacteria and algae.
All kind of living organisms are dependent on plants in one way or the other for their food supply. Therefore, controlling nematode that destroy our crops, it is almost important both agriculturally, economically and socially for well being of both living organism. Although important contributions in nematology are coming in from many countries. Like Nigeria, generally expanded it is in view of hope that it help in one way or the other in preventing or controlling plants nematodes, as the knowledge of the nematodes themselves is important toward successful nematode control.
1.5 Aims and objectives:
– To isolate and identify nematode
– To determine the distribution or assessment of nematode populations
– Proper suggestion on minimizing infection.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
A RESEARCH STUDY ON ATTITUDE OF NURSES TOWARDS RELAPSE PREVENTION AMONG PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS IN FEDERAL NEUROPSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL BARNAWA, KADUNA
ABSTRACT
The problem of every hospital when the targeted objective is not achieved is that there is something wring either with health care givers, the patients or the general public. In order to improve the standard of health of the patients and keep them progressively fit. The reason why such lapse are present here to be sought and the remedy met in order to achieve the set objective of the hospital.
This study is based on the Attitude of nurses towards Relapse prevention among psychiatric patients in Federal neuropsychiatric hospital Barnawa Kaduna. The aim and objective of this study are all directed towards bringing out lasting solutions to curtail this menace. It also intends to actively involve the management of the hospital especially on employing new and scientific approach to holistic patient care. The instruments used for data collection were from interview and Questionnaire which were represented in tabular form, bar chart, pie chart and percentages. Nurses were used for the study .the data collected were analyzed. The result showed that many factor contribute to the effect of relapse.
All these can be prevented through adequate Education, Family oriented therapies, good social support, compliance and keep the follow-up appointment.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page – – – – – – – – – – i
Certification – – – – – – – – – ii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – iii
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – iv
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – v
Table of Content – – – – – – – – – vi
CHAPTER ONE
1.2 Statement of Problem – – – – – – – 3
1.3 Objective of the Study – – – – – – – 5
1.4 Significance of the Study – – – – – – 5
1.5 Research Questions – – – – – – – 6
1.6 Scope of the Study – – – – – – – 6
1.7 Limitation of the Study – – – – – – 7
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms – – – – – 7
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction – – – – – – – – 8
2.1 Conceptual Framework – – – – – – 9
2.1.1 Background of the Study – – – – – – 9
2.1.2 Concept of Attitude – – – – – – – 11
2.1.3 Causes of Relapse – – – – – – – 13
2.1.4 Phases of Psychiatric Illness – – – – – 15
2.1.5 Types of Relapse – – – – – – – 17
2.1.6 Prevention of Relapse among Psychiatric Patients – – 19
2.2 Theoretical Framework – – – – – – 27
2.2.1 Cognitive Behavioral Chain – – – – – – 27
2.2.3 Abstinence Violation effect (A.V.E) – – – – 28
2.3 Conclusion – – – – – – – – – 28
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction – – – – – – – – 29
3.1 Research Design – – – – – – – 29
3.2 Research Setting – – – – – – – 29
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Introduction – – – – – – – – 33
4.1 Data Presentation – – – – – – – 33
4.3 Data Analysis – – – – – – – – 49
4.4 Conclusion – – – – – – – – 53
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Introduction – – – – – – – – 54
5.1 Discussion of Findings – – – – – – 54
5.2 Relationship with other Studies/Literature Review – 56
5.3 Implication for Nursing – – – – – – 58
5.4 Summary – – – – – – – – – 58
5.5 Conclusion – – – – – – – – – 59
5.6 Recommendations – – – – – – – 60
References – – – – – – – – – – 63
Appendix – – – – – – – – – – 64
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of Study
Psychiatric illness has fascinated and confounded healers, scientist and philosopher for centuries, it symptoms have been attributed to possession by demons considered to be punishment by the gods for the evil done or accepted as evidence of the inhumanity of its sufferers victims. Thus explanation resulted in enduring stigma for those whose were diagnosed with such disorders. Even today, much of the sigma persist although it has less to do with demonic possession than with society’s unwillingness to shoulder the tremendous cost associated with mental illness.
Relapse is one of the most severe problem of mental health care givers. It is common in about 1.3% of the already treated cases of mental illness or more than two million people (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] 1999). Its economic cost is envious. Direct cost of relapse treatment expenses of most psychiatric illness were estimated 2.5% of the total treatment of first hand mental illness care budget in 1998 (American Psychiatric Association [APA] 2000).
The last year for which these data were available (USDHHS, 1999). In 1997, this accountant for $23.6 billion of mental health care dollar spent. The indirect cost such as lost of wages, premature death and incarceration were estimated to be $46 billion in the first half of 1998 (APA, 2000).
Further unemployment among permanent disability is 10% (APA 1998). The cost relapse in terms of individuals and family suffering are probably inestimable.
Despite the current trend in modern treatment, there is still an alarming rate of relapse and the reoccurrence of psychiatric illness globally. Individual who ought to be productive and responsible in life are wasting away on daily basis.
Today patients are required to stay for a short period of time in the hospital admission and discharge to home environment to help reduce dependency on the hospital care and reducing relapse. Also this helps to reduce stigmatization and prevent complications (Feyinsayo, A. 2009). This study will attempt an overview of Nurse and also to show how proper utilization of psychiatric Nursing service will go a long way in reducing and eradicating the ever growing cases of relapse among psychiatric patients in Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital Barnawa, Kaduna.
1.2 Statement of Problem
The frequency of patients having readmission into the hospital over the last few years has become a problem. This has made the achievement of good control of patients’ symptoms and cure impossible.
Nursing Staff and the Hospital has suffered frustration seeing the readmission of patients, whom were recently discharged home after being stabilized on admission. Some patient relapse as soon as they are discharged home. Other on trials discharge relapse while other still relapse while on admission. Various factors ranging from financial problems, lack of adequate staff have contributed to the relapse of patients.
Some patients have about a day or two days journey distance to the hospital resulting in poor monitoring and accessibility to the mental health services. Other factors also include stigmatization and dependency on care giver. All these have contributed in the frequency of relapse experienced in the care of these groups of patient leading to the social disability.
Hence, resulting in the following:
If not properly handled and solutions found, the economy may suffer and the society will be at a loss apart from the untold hardship. This is what motivated the researcher to investigate the cause, give suggestions, remedy the situation and also reduce the high rate of relapse.
1.3 Objective of the Study
1. To evaluate the relationship between the educational background of the Nurses and their attitude towards prevention of relapse.
2. To ascertain he relationship between the status of the Nurse and her ability to prevent relapse among psychiatric patients.
3. To determine the relationship between the experience of the Nurse and their ability to identify symptoms of relapse.
4. To find out whether poverty can predispose psychiatric patient to relapse.
5. To determine the relationship between drug compliance among psychiatric patient and relapse prevention.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is to help Nurses develop a positive attitude towards the care to the psychiatric patient thereby reducing the incidence of relapse.
1.5 Research Questions
1. What is the relationship between the educational background of the Nurse and their attitude toward relapse prevention?
2. What is the ability of the Nurse towards Relapse prevention among psychiatric patients?
3. What is the experience of the Nurse toward identifying symptoms of relapse?
4. Can poverty predispose psychiatric patients to relapse?
5. Can drug compliance prevent relapse among psychiatric patient?
1.6 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is restricted to Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital Barnawa Kaduna which is one of the tertiary healthcare institutions owned by the federal Government of Nigeria.
1.7 Limitation of the Study
Financial Constraint as there is no adequate Funds.
The limitations of this study were due to lack of time due to the limited time within which the study had to be carried out.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
HOUSEHOLD WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN ZARIA CITY
KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
In Nigeria and particularly in Zaria city of Kaduna state, open dumping is still the most common household waste disposal method/practice. This type of practice is un hygienic and environmentally unfriendly. This research is aimed at effective household waste management practices in the study area. The research found that there are some other types of management or disposal method in practice in the study area, these include the use of packing and burning, dumping in pits outside the house and dumping in streets by residents, wheel barrows. Also included are scavengers, Ministry of Environment and private organizations that are involved in household waste. Data for the study include the use of observations, questionnaire administration and oral interviews in data gathering and analysis. The research, recommends that the state government should provide household waste management equipment and vehicles, generators on loan for waste management authorities. Waste management such as the construction of sanitary land fills, purchase of incinerators for recycling plants, encourage waste to wealth practices as this would actually reduce the amount of waste that would be physically available in the study area.
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE … … … i
DECLARATION … … … ii
CERTIFICATION … … … iii
APPROVAL PAGE … … … iv
DEDICATION … … … v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT … … vi
ABSTRACT … … … vii
TABLE OF CONTENT … … … viii
LIST OF FIGURES … … … xi
LIST OF TABLES … … … xii
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review … … 15
2.1 Introduction … … 15
2.2 Studies of households solid waste generator … 16
2.3 Waste generation and disposal … 19
2.4 Studies of the composition household solid waste … 20
2.5 Studies of factors affecting solid waste management and disposal 25
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology … … 27
3.1 Introduction … … 27
3.2 The reconnaissance survey … … 27
3.3 Selection of house hold and respondents … 28
3.4 Design of Questionnaire … … 29
3.5 Statistical analysis and result … … 30
3.6 Problem of Data Collection … … 31
CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction … … 32
4.2 Socio demographic profile of respondents … 32
4.3 Household waste generation and management … 33
4.4 Awareness on waste Management … 39
CHAPTER FIVE – Summary, Conclusion AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction … … 41
5.2 Summary and Major finding … … 41
5.3 Conclusion … … 43
5.4 Recommendation … … 43
REFERENCES
Appendix
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig1: Nigeria showing Kaduna state
Fig2: Kaduna state showing Zaria local government
Fig 3: The study Area (Zaria City)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Solid waste generation by land uses 17
Table 2.2: Average composition of residential solid wastes by
percentage of total weight 21
Table 2.3: Result of Santa Monica Solid waste 22
Table 2.4: Solid waste composition in Ibadan Onitsha and Jos 23
Table 2.5: Changes in solid waste composed by percentage
weight in Ibadan 24
Table 3.1: Number of dwelling units, and sample of households taken 29
Table 4.2.1: Socio demographic profile of respondents 32
Table 4.2.2: Frequency distribution of educational background 33
Table 4.2.3: Occupational structure of the respondent 33
Table 4.3.1: Frequency distribution of the types of household waste generated 33
Table 4.3.2: Frequency distribution on the use of refuse in a household 35
Table 4.3.3: Frequency distribution on the nature of refuse bin 36
Table 4.3.4: Frequency distribution on how often refuse bins are
Emptied in the study area 36
Table 4.3.5: Frequency distribution on the respondents awareness
of household waste collection points 37
Chart 4.3.6 Bar chart showing how resident dispose their household waste 38
Chart4.3.7 Pie chart showing the authorities responsible for household
waste collection 39
Table 4.3.8: Frequency distribution about the environment health officials 39
Table 4.3.9: Frequency distribution on cont cases abut environment
sanitation 39
Table 4.4.1: Frequency distribution about sources of awareness
on waste management
Table 4.4.2 Frequency distribution on the factors responsible for
dumping of household waste 40
CHAPTER ONE
One of the greatest hazards of man today is poor sanitary condition of his environment, which is being caused by his daily activities, such as waste generation, increase in population and attendant increase in agricultural, industrial and commercial activities.
Wastes are substances, materials or objects discarded as worthless or unwanted, defective or of no further value for human economic productive, activities or processes (Okechukwu, 1995).
U.S AD-Hoc Group for science and technology (1969), and Adegoke (1990) defined waste as substances and materials or objects which are disposed off according to the provision of a national law. Basically, wastes can exist in three different states-gaseous, liquid and solid. The people are more sensitive to solid waste than to the others. This is because solid wastes have the potential of accumulating and physically insulting the environment.
In the past, the advance effects of human activities were spread over large expense of land and sea. With the measure increase in pollution in recent times and the growth of cities and rapid industrialization, waste discharge have multiplies concentrated at a few model points.
Solid wastes are unwanted materials that cannot flow directly into steams or rise immediately in the air. They are non-liquid, non-gaseous residues of manufacturing, construction, cooking, recreation, agriculture and other activities that use and then discard materials.
They include glasses, bottles, outdated newspapers, carton, plastic, bottles, abandoned automobiles and automobiles parts, discarded cooking utensils, wraps, dead animals et cet era.
Effective solid waste management is achievable only when socio-economic factors are integrated into solid waste management studies. This approach would, according to Hudson and Marks (1977), make it possible to predict not only the expenditure pattern of a household and how much waste would be generated by each particular item consumed, but also the qualities of wastes generated by household. The first note worthy attempt at studying this problem based on this approach was made by Boyd and Hawkins (1971) With limited success, it would be argued that this approach may make it possible to transform the data generated into an input a national solid waste generation projection since that household is the basic wait of consumption and waste generation. Projection of this nature would assist urban environmental planner to better and rationally tackle this problem of waste urban areas. In addition, waste management agencies may use the results of such studies as an instrument for improving or initiating innovations in waste management practices.
It is the realization of the need to highlight the socio-economic aspects of wastes generation and management and their implication for solid wastes managements that provided a case for the present study of Zaria city area of Kaduna state.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Improper waste management leads to pollution and subsequently degradation of the environment. It also adds substances that affect the environment, which because of their nature and quantity constitute a menace to the health and well being of the individuals, the society and the environment as a whole. The Environmental Act of the United Kingdom defines waste as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends to discard (Freeman, 1990).
The available infrastructure for absorbing wastes generated by urban dwellers in Nigeria is grossly inadequate, consequently uncontrolled proliferation of solid wastes dumps is a common feature of most Nigerian cities. These solid wastes appears in various sizes. For example, they could be small, medium, or large depending on the number of households that the dumps serve. In most cases, these dumps are located at the backyards of the dwelling units, roadsides, gutters, streams, abandoned buildings and so on.
Most solid waste dumps are usually invaded by scavenging animals which scatter the wastes to make them breeding grounds for disease vector such as rats and flies. Besides direct contamination of water bodies by these waste, leachartes from decomposing and purifying solid wastes percolate into soil and nearby water sources which could cause disease to humans when consumed. This is particularly the case of un-collected solid wastes which find their way either back to the neighborhoods or into open river channels which become blocked, thus creating favorable breeding grounds for mosquitoes and in some cases block drainage ways, causing floods.
For solid wastes to be effectively managed to ensure the acceptable level of environmental quality required for sustainable growth and development in the urban settings, developing or applying accurate methods of estimating the amount of waste generated and disposed constitute a fertile area of research.
Such methods require accurate information on the types and quantities of solid wastes, generated by households the socio economic profiles of the household waste management systems and mechanisms used by the households and the waste disposal strategies.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Household waste generation increases due to increase in population and household activities. The cost of maintaining the environmental quality also increases as government now have much more wastes to dispose.
Household waste management and practice is amongst the problems affecting Zaria City. Despite the setting up of Kaduna State Environmental Protection Agency (KEPA), the situation has remain largely characterized by indiscriminate dumping of wastes, such as food waste, paper, polythene, scrap mutals et cet era, in virtually everything every part of of the area and have constituted problems like heap waste which can cause road/rail blockage, air pollution, open air burning, leach ate which has adversely affected the general aesthetic nature of the environment. This problem also causes some health related problems due to the incidence of improper waste management practices such as cholera, typhoid, malaria and diahroea for solid wastes to be effectively managed to incur the acceptable level of environment in the urban settings developing or applying accurate methods of estimating the amounts of waste generated and disposed constitute a fertile area of research.
Such methods require accurate information on the types and quantities of solid waste generated by household waste management systems mechanisms used by the households and the knowledge, the information required for proper household waste generation, management and disposal in Zaria city is locking. The research questions predicating the study are:
1.3 AIM
The aim of this research is to examine the types of household solid waste management practices with a view of indentify the most appropriation method for Zaria City.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The aim of the research will be achieved through the following objectives;
1.5 JUSTIFICATION
The world is becoming increasingly urbanized. The outbreak of diseases and the associated environmental problems are increasing in frequency and magnitude. However, government at the local, state and federal levels with non-governmental agencies have shared little concern to the issue of improper household waste management in the study area. The research therefore, intends to suggest a better waste management practice in the study area.
In the study area, much solid wastes are being generated by the households on daily basis. The waste is usually left un cleared for about two weeks before the waste are reluctantly rumpled into gutters or at the designated sites. The households use various methods in during this. This ranges from drums and buckets to refuse bin with lid or without lid and packed by boys using wheel barrows to empty it.
This methods seen not to be affective, this is due to the fact that the refuse/ wastes smell in the compound and eventually leads to outbreak of disease such as diarrhea, cholera et cet era.
This work shall therefore suggest a better practice of waste management in the study area.
This will go along way to eliminate the effects of late evacuation of waste, either from the compounds or at the designated points.
1.6 STUDY AREA
1.6.1 LOCATION
Zaria is one of the major cities in Kaduna state and the second largest after Kaduna with a total population of 408,198 (NPC, 2006). It lies between the co-ordinates of 11o-04on and 7o42e. Here it shares common boundaries with Soba local government to the east, Igabi local Government to the south, Giwa local Government to the west and Sabon Gari Local Government to the north, (fig 2) Zaria is linked by both rail way and good roads, which serve as a link to many other states in the north.
1.6.2 Geology and relief
The Zaria area is a dissected point of north central plains, an extensive peneplain in developed loamy stalline by stalling metamorphic rocks of the Nigerian basement complex.
Residual granite inset bergs, the largest of which is Kufena hill, provide the main relief and there are 100 quartzite fidgets in the west.
An extensive older laterite cover of possible Pliocene age (du preey, undated) is known preserved as low scarp bounded plateau remnants, mainly on interfluves in the western half of the area. Dissect of this older pen peneplain laterite and format of the younger late rite and older alluvium are the result of Pleistocene erosion cycles.
The eastern part of the area is dreamed by the south ward flowing Galma River and its tributaries. The western limit of the Galma catchment basin crosses the map from the middle of the southern boundary to the North West corner.
1.6.3 SOIL
Higher up the slope, the drainage Condition improves and the soils are generally reddish in color, metals are completely absent or a few may occur at great depth, iron concentrations are also not common.
Lower down the slope, the soil gradually become greyer in color while the mottled horizon occurs nearer to the surface. The number of iron concentrations also increase and in some places an iron pan can be seen out roping at lower slops positions. This indicates that iron is not only moved vertically down the profile, but also laterally down the slope.
Locally, in lower slope positions some grey clay soils have been formed. These have a strongly developed coarse blocky structure and may contain calcium carbonate concentrations. The reason why these soils occur here cannot yet be fully explained. They may be influenced by local differences in parent rock or they may have been formed under a previous drier climate.
1.6.4 VEGETATION
The re-growth of woody individuals following cultivation is the foundation on which to base a series of communities in the Zaria area. For in the various characters of the plants concerned are to be found the factors for survival.
Many savanna species are able to produce profuse sucker and coppice rowth when the main trunk is cut and because so many of the same species have wide spread horizontal root systems this leads, with constant cutting, to a proliferation of scrub, composed of many small re growths. Associated with this habit is the ability to survive in a suffrutex form for many years. The arid shoots are burnt off or destroyed each year while of the underground root system enlarges and stores food material and water. Relaxation of damage enables the shoots from the crown of the root stock to grow rapidly and establish scrub growth. This growth often has in the early stages much larger leaves and longer inter nodes than is normal for the species.
Many of the seedlings of the trees involved also survive in their early stages in a similar way. An extreme example is that of butyrospermum paradoxum which on germination actually buries the plumage and then survives for many years as a suppressed growth before finally becoming a tree. (Jackson,1969).
1.6.5 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
The part of Nigeria where Zaria lies is invaded by two distinct air masses, one from the north-dry and continental in origin, the Saharan air mass and the other from over the Atlantic in the south must, cool and equatorial maritime in nature.
The weather depends, to a large extent, on the air mass which covers the area and its depth. These two air masses form a discontinuity zone at their boundary.
The animal rhythm of weather in Zaria follows the annual march of the surface position of ITD. Statistical averages of weather elements would fail to portray the climatic picture of Zaria. It is rather, the weather sequence in a season and sometimes its extremes which convey a realistic picture of the weather and climate of Zaria.
DRY SEASON – by the middle of November, in most years ITD moves south of Zaria and the dry continental north-easterly or easterly air replaces the moist south westerly air from the surface. ITD oscillates, moving forward and backward, before it finally moves south of Zaria. As a result, the surface air, at times, becomes dry north easterly and the others, humid south westerly with the beginning of the dry season the ‘sticky’ heat of September October is over.
HOT SEASON – ITD starts its northward movement in February and by late March or early April it crosses the latitude of Zaria. At this time there is a thug-of-war between the mE air from the south and the cTs air from the north to take control of the surface around Zaria, so in march and early April the surface winds recorded in Zaria are sometimes south-westerly and sometimes north-easterly. The movement of ITD north of Zaria is marked, firstly by a change in the direction of the surface winds and secondly by a sudden group in the moisture content of the surface air.
1.6.6 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Economic activities found in Zaria includes farming (rainfall and irrigation) such as maize, millet, guinea corn, vegetables among others. Other activities include administrative work, banking services, teaching, industries, and animal rearing (such as cattle, sheep, goat and horses).
Among the major industries located in Zaria include the British American Tobacco, Zazzau pharmaceutical industry, Zazzau gunnery mills and other several small scale industries such as bricks and furniture making.
The main types of land are found in the Zaria area: gona or upland fields which support, during the wet season only. Crops of relatively low value per acre such as millet, guinea corn, groundnut, and cotton. And Fadama or low land fields which support, throughout the year, more labor-intensive, higher value per acre crops such as sugar-cone.
1.6.7 THE PEOPLE
The dominant people of Zaria city are Hausa. Others are Nupe, Yoruba, Fulani et cet era. There are Angwans Nupawa, which was established by Nupe immigrants, limanchin Kona, iya populated by Arabs and Kanuri immigrants, Kaura and Amaru from Borno and people from southern Zaria (Kaje, Kurawa, Kaduna among others). (fig 3).
The diversity of ethnic groups made Zaria to grow into what is now generally referred to as cosmopolitan city (Sunday, 2007).
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420
BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
HALITOSIS AMONG STUDENT IN SHEHU IDRIS COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, MAKARFI, KADUNA STATE
ABSTRACT
Infact, the aim of this study is to create awareness on the Halitosis among students in SICHST Makarfi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. Halitosis or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant odor exhaled in breathing. Halitosis is a condition affecting both male and female in all ages, Halitosis can cause by eating of certain foods, like cooked eggs, garlic, onions, smoking and drinking alcohol, which when absorbed into our blood stream, are transferred to the lungs and exhaled breath will be produced as bad breath, suffering from some systemic disease such as liver, kidney, diabetic mellitus, and digestive track infection whereby gases are blocked from passing the stomach or intestines.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page – – – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – ii
Approval Page – – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – v
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – vii
Table of Contents – – – – – – – – viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study – – – – – – – 1
Statement of the Problems – – – – – – – 4
Purpose of the Study – – – – – – – – 5
Significance of the Study – – – – – – – 5
Research Questions – – – – – – – – 6
Scope of the Study – – – – – – – – 6
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE – – – – 7
History – – – – – – – – – – 7
Causes – – – – – – – – – – 10
Types – – – – – – – – – – 14
Sign and Symptoms – – – – – – – – 15
Diagnosis – – – – – – – – – – 16
Prevention and Control – – – – – – – 20
Management – – – – – – – – – 23
CHAPTER III – – – – – – – – – 27
Research Design – – – – – – – – 27
Area of the Study – – – – – – – – 28
Population of the Study – – – – – – – 29
Sample and Sampling Technique – – – – – – 30
Instrument for Data Collection – – – – – – 30
Validity of the Instrument – – – – – – – 31
Reliability of the Instrument – – – – – – 31
Procedure for Data Collection – – – – – – 32
Procedure for Data Analysis – – – – – – 32
CHAPTER IV
Data Presentation and Analysis – – – – – – 34
CHAPTER V
Summary – – – – – – – – – – 38
Discussion – – – – – – – – – – 39
Finding – – – – – – – – – – 40
Recommendations – – – – – – – – 40
Suggestions – – – – – – – – – 41
Conclusion – – – – – – – – – – 41
References – – – – – – – – – – 43
Questionnaire – – – – – – – – – 45
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Halitosis or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant odor exhaled in breathing (Gage, 2007).
Halitosis can be important social problem in which the standard dental treatment and mouth wash that are often recommended provide only temporary relief. The smell is from an oral source due to bacterial activities (Rosemberg, 2002).
Oral malodor is primarily the result of microbial metabolism, the mouth is a home of hundreds of bacterial species with various nutritional preferences. The most common location for mouth related halitosis is the tongue. Tongue bacterial produce malordor and fatty acid and count for about 80 to 90 percent of all cases of mouth related bad breath. Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are often found on the dorsum of the tongue, where they are relatively undisturbed by normal activities. This part of the tongue is relatively dry and poorly cleansed and bacterial populations can thrive on remnants of food deposits, dead epithelial cells and post nasal drip. The convoluted microbial structure of the tongue dorsum provides an ideal habitat for anaerobic bacterial, which flourish under a continually – forming tongue coating of food debris, dead cells, post nasal drip and overlying bacteria living and dead when left on the tongue the anaerobic respiration of such bacterial can yield either the putrescent smell of indole, skatole, methyl mercapton, alloymethyl sulfide and dimethyl sulfide (Tonzentich, 1997).
The organism digest protein, and several fatid substance arise leading to bad breath. Oral malodor from the overgrowth of proteolytic, anerobic gram negative bacterial the creavices of the tongue dorsum can be successfully diagnosed and treated (Lochner et al, 2000).
There are several causes of halitosis although the main one is oral bacterial over 90 million people suffer from chronic halitosis which is medical term for bad breath in most cases halitosis originate from the gums and tongue, caused by bacterial from the decay of food particles, other debris in the mouth and poor oral hygiene. In most cases (85-90%) bad breath originate in the mouth itself.
The intensity of bad breath differ during the day, due to eating of certain foods such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, egg, cheese, smoking and alcohol consumption, since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is in active during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening (morning breath). Bad breath may be transient of ten disappearing following brushing teeth, flushing or rinsing with special mouth wash (Tammy Devenport, 2007).
Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath). Which is a more serious condition affecting some 25 percent of the population in varying degrees. It can negatively affect the individual’s personal, social and business relationship leading to poor self esteem and increased stress. Halitosis is a medical term for bad breath and this is quite serious as a social disorder. Halitosis can cause extremely embarrassing situation in social interaction and relationship at work and in your personal life as well (Lell et al, 2006).
However, some bad breath seem to be associated with local pathological causes such as gingivitis (especially ANUG), periodontal disease, infected extraction sockets, or other types of oral species. In some cases, other possibilities that favour oral malodor are the presence of residual blood post operatively, debris under bridge or appliances, ulcer, dry mouth, and perfection of post nasal mucus drip stagnating on the tongue (Wd Kazor, 2002).
Various methods used to control halitosis (bad breath) the most widely-known reason to clean the tongue is for the control of bad breath. Method used against bad breath, such as mints, mouth sprays and mouth wash, may only temporarily mask the odour created by the bacteria on the tongue but cannot cure bad breath because they don’t remove the source of bad breath, in order to prevent the production of the sulfur – containing compounds mention above the bacteria on the tongue must be removed regularly. Most people who clean their tongue use a (tongue scraper) or a tooth brush (Dent Hes, 2007).
Statement of the Problems
Eating of certain foods, like cooked eggs, garlic, onion which when absorbed into our blood stream, are transferred to the lungs and exhaled breath will be produced as bad breath.
Suffering from some systemic diseases such as liver and kidney, diabetic mellitus, digestive track infection whereby gases are blocked from passing the stomach or intestines.
When mouth is dry, saliva production decreases leaving the mouth natural ability to clean itself impaired. Saliva is mouth’s natural mouth wash which contain properties that keep the mouth clean.
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to find out the occurrence of halitosis among the students in SICHST, Makarfi.
This will help to proffer suggestion in understanding the existing oral health problems and develop oral health programs in the College, and assist oral health practitioners to provide a special oral health services such as oral health talk to entire students in SICHST Makarfi, and also help the management of the College to introduce oral health care in every department.
Research Questions
Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is limited to Halitosis among students in SICHST Makarfi which consist of causes, prevention and treatment.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420