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EFFECT OF SMUGGLING IN NATIONAL SECURITY IN NIGERIA-A CASE STUDY OF NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA.
Abstract
This study examines the impact of smuggling on national security in Nigeria, with a specific focus on the North Central region. Smuggling, an illegal cross-border activity, poses significant threats to national security by facilitating the flow of illicit goods, arms, and contraband, undermining economic stability, and fueling criminal activities. The research seeks to understand the extent of smuggling in North Central Nigeria, its implications for national security, and the measures currently in place to address the issue.
The study adopts a qualitative approach, drawing on data from interviews with security agencies, customs officers, local authorities, and residents in smuggling-prone areas. In addition, secondary data from reports, articles, and government publications are analyzed to provide context. Findings reveal that smuggling in the North Central region is driven by porous borders, weak enforcement mechanisms, corruption, and high demand for contraband goods. The impact of smuggling includes increased armed conflicts, proliferation of small arms, revenue loss for the government, and heightened insecurity in border communities.
The study concludes that to mitigate the threat of smuggling to national security, there is a need for enhanced border management, stronger collaboration between security agencies, and community engagement in intelligence gathering. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and security stakeholders in formulating effective strategies to combat smuggling and bolster national security in Nigeria.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Smuggling has become a significant threat to national security, especially in regions prone to porous borders, such as North Central Nigeria. This illegal activity, which involves the clandestine transportation of goods, weapons, and individuals across borders, undermines national policies, destabilizes local economies, and poses severe threats to the nation’s overall security framework. Smuggling in Nigeria has deep historical roots, exacerbated by socio-political and economic challenges such as poverty, unemployment, and weak law enforcement institutions. Over the years, it has evolved into an organized crime network, with direct implications for Nigeria’s security, economic stability, and social well-being.
North Central Nigeria, comprising states like Niger, Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, and Plateau, is characterized by its strategic location, sharing borders with neighboring countries, including Benin and Niger. This region has become a hotspot for various forms of smuggling activities due to its extensive and often poorly patrolled borders. These activities include the smuggling of arms, contraband goods, illegal drugs, and even human trafficking. The increase in such illicit activities contributes to insecurity, particularly in the form of violent crimes, terrorism, and insurgencies like those perpetrated by Boko Haram and other criminal elements.
National security is primarily concerned with the protection of a state’s citizens, economy, and institutions from internal and external threats. However, the infiltration of smuggled arms and other illicit goods into Nigeria has made the government’s efforts to secure its borders increasingly difficult. Smuggling erodes national security by facilitating the illegal entry of weapons used by insurgents, bandits, and other criminal groups to perpetuate violence, undermining state authority and security operations. The ramifications extend beyond security, as smuggling weakens local industries, leads to revenue losses, and perpetuates corruption among security personnel. Addressing smuggling in the North Central region is crucial for maintaining national security, promoting economic development, and ensuring the welfare of Nigeria’s citizens.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The proliferation of smuggling activities in North Central Nigeria has escalated, creating far-reaching consequences for national security. The porous nature of Nigeria’s borders and the lack of adequate surveillance have made the region a thriving ground for illicit trade. This study seeks to investigate how smuggling in the North Central region contributes to national security challenges in Nigeria. While the government has implemented policies to curtail smuggling, such as border patrols and customs regulations, these efforts have been largely ineffective. Smugglers have developed sophisticated networks to evade law enforcement, and the illicit trade continues to fuel armed conflicts, criminal activities, and the rise of insurgent groups.
The central problem lies in understanding the full extent to which smuggling impacts Nigeria’s national security and what measures can be taken to effectively curb it. Given the scale of smuggling operations, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive approach that combines strong border security, intelligence gathering, and international cooperation. This study will provide insights into the underlying factors that enable smuggling in the North Central region and offer solutions to mitigate its adverse effects on national security.
1.3 Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
To examine the impact of smuggling on national security in Nigeria, focusing on the North Central region.
To identify the types of smuggled goods and their link to insecurity in North Central Nigeria.
To analyze the challenges faced by security agencies in curbing smuggling activities in the region.
To explore the socio-economic factors that contribute to smuggling in North Central Nigeria.
To recommend strategies for improving border security and combating smuggling in Nigeria.
1.4 Research Questions
To achieve the objectives of this study, the following research questions will guide the inquiry:
How does smuggling in North Central Nigeria affect national security?
What types of smuggled goods are most commonly associated with insecurity in the region?
What challenges do security agencies face in combating smuggling in North Central Nigeria?
How do socio-economic factors contribute to the prevalence of smuggling in the region?
What strategies can be implemented to strengthen border security and reduce smuggling activities?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant as it highlights the critical connection between smuggling and national security in Nigeria, with a particular focus on the North Central region. It aims to provide policymakers, security agencies, and stakeholders with a deeper understanding of the scope of smuggling activities and their effects on national security. The study will also shed light on the socio-economic dynamics that perpetuate smuggling and how these can be addressed to curb the problem effectively. By offering practical recommendations for enhancing border security and law enforcement efforts, the study seeks to contribute to the development of comprehensive policies that will reduce smuggling and improve national security in Nigeria.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the impact of smuggling on national security in Nigeria, using North Central Nigeria as a case study. The research will explore the various forms of smuggling prevalent in the region, including arms trafficking, contraband goods, and human trafficking. It will also analyze the socio-economic factors that contribute to smuggling and the challenges faced by security agencies in addressing the issue. The geographical scope of the study is limited to the North Central region of Nigeria, but the findings will have broader implications for understanding smuggling and its impact on national security across the country.
1.7 Definition of Key Terms
Smuggling: The illegal movement of goods, arms, drugs, or people across borders, usually to avoid customs duties or regulatory restrictions.
National Security: The protection of a nation’s borders, institutions, economy, and citizens from threats such as terrorism, crime, and external aggression.
Porous Borders: Border areas that are inadequately monitored, allowing for unauthorized and illegal crossings.
Insurgency: An armed rebellion against a recognized authority, often involving guerrilla tactics and acts of terrorism.
Contraband: Goods that are imported or exported illegally, either to evade taxes or because their trade is prohibited.
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THE IMPACT OF SMUGGLING IN NATIONAL SECURITY IN NIGERIA-A CASE STUDY OF NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA.
Abstract
This study examines the impact of smuggling on national security in Nigeria, with a specific focus on the North Central region. Smuggling, an illegal cross-border activity, poses significant threats to national security by facilitating the flow of illicit goods, arms, and contraband, undermining economic stability, and fueling criminal activities. The research seeks to understand the extent of smuggling in North Central Nigeria, its implications for national security, and the measures currently in place to address the issue.
The study adopts a qualitative approach, drawing on data from interviews with security agencies, customs officers, local authorities, and residents in smuggling-prone areas. In addition, secondary data from reports, articles, and government publications are analyzed to provide context. Findings reveal that smuggling in the North Central region is driven by porous borders, weak enforcement mechanisms, corruption, and high demand for contraband goods. The impact of smuggling includes increased armed conflicts, proliferation of small arms, revenue loss for the government, and heightened insecurity in border communities.
The study concludes that to mitigate the threat of smuggling to national security, there is a need for enhanced border management, stronger collaboration between security agencies, and community engagement in intelligence gathering. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and security stakeholders in formulating effective strategies to combat smuggling and bolster national security in Nigeria.
Keywords: smuggling, national security, North Central Nigeria, border control, illicit trade, security challenges.
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A STUDY OF CYBERCRIME IN NIGERIA. A CASE STUDY OF GOMBE STATE
ABSTRACT
The Global Information Infrastructure creates unlimited opportunities for commercial, social and other human activities. However, it is increasingly under attack by cybercriminals; as the number, cost, and sophistication of attacks are increasing at an alarming rate. This study sets out to examine the sociological and technological factors that impact cybercrime and cybersecurity and thereby articulates the relevant circumstances and threats of cybercrime in Nigeria. The study approached the issue of cybercrime from theoretical and investigative points of views. Structured interviews with law enforcement agencies and governmental institution for cyber security were also conducted. Data obtained through these research instruments were subjected to descriptive analysis and frequency counts in order to explain the activities of Nigerian cybercriminals based on existing theories of crime, and to understand their intents, purposes and methods. Four theories of crime, namely, Structural Functionalism Theory, Marxian Theory, Routine Activity Theory and Technology Enabled Crime Theory were all found to be relevant to Nigerian cybercrime. At the level of existing laws, the study established that there are no existing laws in the Nigerian statues that directly address cybercrime.
The aim of this study was to examine the perception of cybercrime among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area using Gombe local government area as a study. In this research study, we found out people’s reaction to messages depends mainly on how it is perceived. To achieve the aim o the study, literature was reviewed. Survey research method was used in which questionnaire, the major instrument, was distributed to various respondents in the execution of the study. Samples were selected using the systematic random sampling techniques. Chi-square and simple percentages was used in analyzing data. Internet is used as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming activities was the finding drawn. Finally, Cyber laws should be made to govern the country’s cyber space and give the nation’s adequate cyber security was the recommendation gotten based on the finding drawn.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Computer crime, or Cybercrime, refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Netcrime is criminal exploitation of the Internet. Dr. Debarati Halder and Dr. K. Jaishankar (2011) define Cybercrimes as: “Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)”. Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and financial health. Issues surrounding these types of crimes have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding cracking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.
An Australian nationwide survey conducted in 2006 found that two in three convicted cyber-criminals were between the ages of 15 and 26.[citation needed]
Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions through the International Criminal Court.
Cybercrime is criminal activity done using computers and the Internet. This includes anything from downloading illegal music files to stealing millions of dollars from online bank accounts. Cybercrime also includes non-monetary offenses, such as creating and distributing viruses on other computers or posting confidential business information on the Internet.
Perhaps the most prominent form of cybercrime is identity theft, in which criminals use the Internet to steal personal information from other users. Two of the most common ways this is done is through phishing and pharming. Both of these methods lure users to fake websites (that appear to be legitimate), where they are asked to enter personal information. This includes login information, such as usernames and passwords, phone numbers, addresses, credit card numbers, bank account numbers, and other information criminals can use to “steal” another person’s identity. For this reason, it is smart to always check the URL or Web address of a site to make sure it is legitimate before entering your personal information.
Because cybercrime covers such a broad scope of criminal activity, the examples above are only a few of the thousands of crimes that are considered cybercrimes. While computers and the Internet have made our lives easier in many ways, it is unfortunate that people also use these technologies to take advantage of others. Therefore, it is smart to protect yourself by using antivirus and spyware blocking software and being careful where you enter your personal information.
There is no doubt that cybercrime is an image nightmare for Nigeria. The recent decision of President Olusegun Obasanjo to setup a working group, the Nigeria Cyber Crime Working Group (NCWG) (http://www.jidaw.com/itsolutions/security5.html) is an indication that cybercrime, especially Internet 419 is a source of concern and embarrassment. According to media reports in Nigeria, a bill is presently being prepared to deal specifically with the menace of cybercrime. The Internet creates unlimited opportunities for commercial, social and educational activities. But as we can see with cybercrime the net introduces its own peculiar risks. What is the menace cybercrime poses to society? The convenience associated with IT and the Internet is now being exploited to serve criminal purposes. Cybercrime covers Internet fraud not just online 419 – the use of computers and or the Internet to commit crime. Computer-assisted crime includes e-mail scams, hacking, distribution of hostile software (viruses and worms), denial of service attacks, theft of data, extortion, fraud and impersonation. Cyber crime uses the unique features of the Net – sending of e-mail in seconds, speedy publication/ dissemination of information through the web to anyone on the planet. Computer attacks can be generated by criminals from anywhere in the world, and executed in other areas, irrespective of geographic location. And often these criminal activities can be faster, easier and more damaging with the use of the Internet. Since the loss suffered by consumers and investors creates serous credibility and image problems, many countries develop strategies for preventing, detecting and containing the threats associated with cybercrime. While it is acknowledged that greed is a major factor motivating most victims, what about the image created for many who never respond?
How is the nation fighting cyber crime? It’s interesting that there is quite a lot of talk about fighting cyber crime. But what are the efforts? And how effective are they? Since there is an awareness of the menace it poses to society, what have been the sincere and meaningful efforts to fight cybercrime? For one are the security agencies enlightened enough? When you talk of efforts, you have to ask again: what have the security agencies done? How much has been invested in terms of time, education, personnel, etc? Are such efforts assessable or meaningful? Fighting cybercrime requires not just IT knowledge but IT intelligence on the part of the security agencies. In this clime, there is an IT security divide – a serious shortage of skills to deal with the threats associated with IT. Shouting and moaning about cybercrime isn’t enough. All the talk is meaningless unless the gap is closed. Security agencies need to be equipped with the skills, the know-how and the insight necessary to fight cybercrime effectively. While resources are needed to fight the menace, it is imperative to avoid the misdirected approach of “throwing money” at the problem. Invest based on priorities and strategies. Such policies must be based on knowledge. Knowledge not just for the operatives, but also for those that will commit resources. For example, do the decision makers have any REAL, PRACTICAL appreciation of technology, not to talk of cybercrime? What is their take on the basics of information security in today’s high-tech, business environment? The cybercriminals seem to have the technology advantage.
Essentially cybercrime is information and intelligence based activity. You cannot fight cybercrime with ignorance, strong directives or boastful talk.
To fight cybercrime, those involved have to spend time to learn how cybercrime operates and then devise strategies to fight the menace. And note that learning in IT is not one-off but lifelong.
How strong are the security agencies in the fundamentals of IT? You cannot fight today’s crime with yesterday’s technology. It will always be a losing battle if security professionals are way behind the cyber criminals in terms of tech knowledge. It’s not just about computing skills, but IT Security expertise (http://www.jidaw.com/certarticles/securitycerts.html) is essential.
Fighting cybercrime requires a holistic approach, not just addressing the cyber cafés alone. What is the culture towards cybercrime? All stakeholders should be involved. Security agencies should liaise with industry stakeholders. There is a need to create a security-aware culture involving the public, the ISPs, cybercafes, government, security agencies and Internet users. There must be education about the problems, risks and solutions. Existing and potential victims need to be considered. Greed and unrealistic expectations are major problems. “If an offer is too good to be true, don’t believe it”.
Furthermore, legislation needs to keep pace with e-crime, especially as it becomes more prevalent and sophisticated. Apart from awareness and culture, security measures (technical and non technical) will need to be put in place and enforced, as part of the solutions. This might involve raising penalties and increasing the seriousness of e-offences. The right culture should create a high level of awareness amongst stakeholders. Who are the main actors involved? Cyber cafés are not the only source of cyber crime. Apart from the Internet, what are the causes – both historical and current – for the continued rise in cybercrime activity? Can cybercrime be divorced from the widespread corruption in society? Or the harsh economic climate, high unemployment? Disregard for the rule of law and lack of transparency and accountability in governance certainly doesn’t help matters. There is no justification for crime but to the populace, who is perceived as the criminal? Which is the bigger crime: corruption in high places or cybercrime? Heavier punishments and enlightenment, closing down cyber cafés, issuing draconian directives may therefore not be meaningful without addressing the causes. To fight crime you attack the causes of crime.
Also in terms of strategy, it is crucial to thoroughly address issues relating to enforcement. Mishandling of enforcement can backfire. Enforcement can only work if it avoids harassment, abuse of privacy and extortion. Care must be taken not to throw out the baby with the bath water. Don’t create a situation where genuine users of the Internet are frustrated out and unable to benefit from the Internet.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The internet creates unlimited opportunities for commer-cial, social and other human activities. But with cyber-crime the Internet introduces its own peculiar risks. What are the menace cybercrime and cybersecurity threats poses to Nigeria?
Waziri (2009) spoke about the dreadful level of corruption as being a threat to Vision 20:2020. Cyber-crime is an obstacle that may shut the door of progress against the nation. This was why Aluko (2004) gave seventeen (17) ways of stopping financial corruption in Nigeria. One of these crimes according to him has to do with cybercrimes. The global village currently records an increasing criminal behaviour. News of cybercriminal activities continue to fill the pages of the newspaper, it is central to world news and has become a global problem. There is hardly a place where computers and internet facilities are found that cases of crime are not recorded. New modes of operation are developing as the Global System for Mobile-telecommunication (GSM) is now used for browsing. A lot of young people are common among the perpetrators of these criminal activities. They spend hours browsing and sometimes stay awake all night to carry out their nefarious activities. The people involved are mostly found within the ages of fifteen to thirty years.
According to Erhabor (2008), cybercrimes are described as one of the fastest growing criminal activities on the planet. He repeated the fact that it covers a large range of illegal activity including financial scams, com-puter hacking, downloading of pornographic images from the internet, virus attacks, stalking and creating websites that promote hatred. In recent time, young students in the tertiary engage in forgery of all kinds ranging from false admission paper to school fees receipts, certificates racketeering and examination malpractice that is, accessing useful information during examinations through the handset and other electronic devices. Ajao (2008) said Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa top cybercrime in Africa. Nigeria is not spared from the heartache caused by cybercrimes.
The findings above are worrisome and it is in order to curb and proffer solution to the above that the study intends to look at the sociological and technological fac-tors influencing cybercrime and cyber security in Nigeria.
Nigeria according to Wikipedia is said to be 7th largest oil producing country in the world, but nevertheless, the majority of Nigerians are still living in poverty.
Nigeria is also rated amongst one of the most corrupt countries of the world.
Internet usage in Nigeria has grown rapidly resulting in the explosion of Internet Service Providers (ISPS) and Internet Access Point creating an increase in the positive impacts on the socio-economic and educational developments in the country.
Unfortunately, the country’s image has also suffered as a result of the unscripted activities of some Nigerians using the internet as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming activities.
The major implication of the unconscious acceptance of this menace in the Nigerian society in the nearest future has created a high level of disinterest in education and touting among young people.
In Nigeria today, young people mostly youths are the ones who engage in this form of anti-social behaviour for the purpose of living a life of splendour.
In recent times Nigeria has been labelled as a corrupt nation. There is a need for the Nigerian government to do something fast and urgent to curb this menace of cyber crime.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
1. To determine the perception of Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area towards cybercrime.
2. To determine the reason why cybercrime is mostly rampant among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area.
3. To suggest measures that can be taken by the federal government to curb cybercrime in Nigeria.
3. To find out how Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area perceive cybercrime.
4. To assess the ways federal government can curb the continued spread of cybercrime among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area and the general public.
5. To ascertain the factors that tends to cause young people’s involvement in cybercrime in Nigeria.
6. To find out if the internet is used as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming
7. To identify informal, sociological and technological causes of cybercrime and cybersecurity in Nigeria.
8. To analyse the approaches adopted by Nigerian law enforcement agencies and cybersecurity stakeholders in combating cybercrime and ensuring cybersecurity.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research study aims to assess the vulnerability of the Nigerian society is to crime and abuse on computer networks and the Global Information Infrastructure at large.
The study then attempts to answer the following questions:
1. How are Nigeria anti-graft agencies tackling cyber-crime and cyber security threats?
2. How effective and efficient are the efforts of the security agencies in combating cybercrime and ensuring cybersecurity in Nigeria?
3. What can be done to improve the state of cybercrime and cybersecurity in Nigeria?
1. In what way do Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area perceive cybercrime?
2. What are the ways Federal Government can curb the continued spread of cybercrime among Nigerian youth and the general public?
3. Is the internet used as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming activities?
4. What are the factors that tend to cause people’s involvement in cybercrime in Nigeria? 1.6 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
H0: internet is not used as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming activities.
H1: internet is used as a channel for the perpetration of criminal spamming activities.
H0: the Federal Government cannot curb the continued spread of cybercrime among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area and the general public.
H2: the Federal Government can curb the continued spread of cybercrime among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area and the general public.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study, which is primarily aimed at explaining how cybercrime has impacted on the perception of youths in the society, will provide an insight into the problems associated with cybercrime. This report would be of great benefit for youths, to expose them to the factors that tend to cause young people’s involvement in cybercrime in Nigeria.
It would be useful to the government and related stakeholders to enable them adequately understand factors responsible for and how to curb the continue spread of cybercrime among Nigerian youths in Gombe local government area [and the general public].
The findings will be useful for researchers to further generate knowledge in the field.
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LEADERSHIP AND GOOD GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA-ISSUES AND PROSPECTS FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Abstract:
Leadership and good governance are essential pillars for fostering national development in any country. In Nigeria, these aspects have garnered significant attention due to their pivotal role in shaping the socio-economic landscape. This abstract delves into the critical issues surrounding leadership and governance in Nigeria, examining the challenges faced and the prospects for national development. The analysis encompasses a comprehensive review of the historical context, current trends, and future outlook pertaining to leadership and governance in Nigeria. Key issues such as corruption, political instability, institutional weaknesses, and socio-economic disparities are discussed, highlighting their detrimental effects on national development. Additionally, the abstract explores potential avenues for addressing these challenges and fostering good governance practices in Nigeria. Drawing on lessons from successful models of leadership and governance in other countries, as well as indigenous approaches, the abstract presents a nuanced perspective on the prospects for enhancing leadership and governance in Nigeria and propelling the nation towards sustainable development. Ultimately, the abstract underscores the imperative of effective leadership and good governance as catalysts for achieving the socio-economic transformation and inclusive growth envisioned for Nigeria.
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background and Context
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Scope and Limitations
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Research Methodology
Chapter 2: Historical Perspectives on Leadership and Governance in Nigeria
2.1 Pre-Colonial Leadership Structures
2.2 Colonial Legacy and Impact on Governance
2.3 Post-Independence Leadership Challenges
2.4 Military Rule and Governance Dynamics
2.5 Transition to Democracy: Challenges and Progress
Chapter 3: Challenges of Leadership and Governance in Nigeria
3.1 Corruption and Political Patronage
3.2 Ethno-Religious Divides and Identity Politics
3.3 Weak Institutional Frameworks
3.4 Inadequate Service Delivery and Infrastructure
3.5 Security Challenges and Insurgency
3.6 Socio-Economic Disparities and Marginalization
Chapter 4: Prospects for Good Governance and National Development
4.1 Strengthening Democratic Institutions and Rule of Law
4.2 Anti-Corruption Efforts and Transparency Measures
4.3 Promoting Inclusive Leadership and Participation
4.4 Enhancing Service Delivery and Infrastructure Development
4.5 Addressing Security Challenges and Conflict Resolution
4.6 Economic Reforms and Sustainable Development Strategies
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Summary of Findings
5.2 Implications for Policy and Practice
5.3 Recommendations for Improving Leadership and Governance
5.4 Future Research Directions
5.5 Concluding Remarks
References
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IMPACT OF POLITICAL CORRUPTION ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA
Abstract
There are many unresolved problems in Nigeria, but the issue of the upsurge of corruption is troubling. And the damages it has done to the polity are astronomical. In fact, the major factor obstructing her path towards sustainable development is corruption. This study therefore made an attempt to situate the impact of corruption on the socio-economic development of Nigeria. Adopting the system theory as a theoretical framework and relying on secondary sources of data, the study revealed the country’s scandalous underdevelopment in spite of her huge revenue, promotion of kidnapping, decline in public morality, absence of basic amenities and infrastructures, unemployment, poverty, high mortality rate, lawlessness, ghost workers syndrome, election irregularities, among others as a result of a failed system. The study recommended that the anti-corruption agencies will not be able to fight corruption alone unless effective institutionalization is embarked upon. Nigerians need empowerment, security and re-orientation through a responsible Press and exemplary leadership in all institutions in order to attain meaningful and sustainable development.
TABLE OF CONTENT:
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Conceptual and Operational Definition
1.8 Assumptions
1.9 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sources of Literature
2.2 The Review
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Research Sample
3.4 Measuring Instrument
3.5 Data Collection
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Expected Result
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Data Analysis
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Recommendations for Further Study
References
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GOVERNMENT AND THE MANAGEMENT OF SECURITY CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
Security concerns have existed since time immemorial. But, the challenges have never been as readily manifested as they are presently. This is rather disconcerting. Moreso, because some of the security challenges and problems we encounter daily in the contemporary society are almost entirely unpredictable. Indeed, rapid growth and use of mechanical arts, applied science, and revolutionary dynamics of society apparently blend well with the desperate nature of the criminally minded to increase the spate of threats to life and property, a state which has assumed omnipresent and digital dimensions of crime in our society. The aim of this study is to examine Government and the Management of Security Challenges in Nigeria: a case of Akwa Ibom State (1999-2011). Governments, all over the world are accountable for the provision of security and well-being of their citizens through the use of instruments of state power, including defense and security agencies, backed-up by enabling laws. For instance, the 1999 Nigerian constitution outlines the role of government and relationship among levels of government in security management. During the period, Akwa Ibom State had suffered myriad of internal security challenges namely; kidnappings and hostage takings for monetary gains, murder and political assassinations, armed robberies, cult-related criminal activities and subversion. Others include illegal possession of fire arms, insurgency, economic sabotage, oil pipelines and NEPA installations vandalization, arson and fire outbreaks and boundary disputes. This work used descriptive statistics (including charts and tabular analysis) to analyze the role of government in security management. The study however, focused on security challenges arising from dereliction of statutory duties by police personnel due to poor salary, insufficient funding and equipping of security agencies with consequent high crime rates. This work adopted structural functionalist and levels 1, 2, 3 models as theoretical frameworks. The study recommends that government at all levels should motivate, approve good remuneration to security and law enforcement agents, properly fund and equip security agencies to boost their operational capabilities for effective protection of lives and property of the citizens.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Title Page – – i
Declaration – – ii
Certification – – iii
Dedication – – iv
Acknowledgements – – v
Abstract – – vi
Table of Contents – – vii
List of Tables – – viii
List of Pictures (Plates) – – xvi
List of Diagrams – – xv
List of Appendices – – xiv
List of Abbreviations – – xvii
INTRODUCTION: – – 1
Background of the Study. – – 1
Statement of the Research Problem. 5
Objectives of the Study. – – 15
Main Objective. – – 15
Subsidiary Objectives. – – 16
Hypotheses. – – 16
Significance of the Study. – 16
Scope and Limitations of the Study. – 20
Definition of Terms. – – 21
Background to the Centralization of Security System in Nigeria. 23
1.8.1 The Negative Effects of Centralized Security System in Nigeria. 27
Objectives and Principles of Security. – 29
2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.
2.1 Literature Review (Introduction) – 34
2.2 General Literature on State Security Management Mandate. – 34
Comparative Literature on Systems of Government and Countries with Oil-Related Security Challenges. – 68
Unitary or Centralist System of Government – Iran. 68
Federalist or Democratic System of Government – Nigeria. 72
Countries with Crude Oil-related Security Problem- Venezuela and Angola. – 75
Venezuela and Oil-Related Security Challenges. – 76
Angola and Oil-Related Security Challenges. – 84
Nigeria and Oil-Related Security Challenges. – 87
Comparative Discussion. – 89
Case Study Literature Focusing on Crude Oil Discovery and Exploitation as a Major Source of Insecurity in Akwa Ibom.- 92
2.5 Configurative Literature Focusing on the State Security Structures. – 103
2.5.1 The State Security Service (SSS). – 106
2.5.2 The Nigerian Police Force (NPF). – 109
2.6 Ideological Literature on the Central Ideas of Philosophers,
Experts and Scholars of Security. – 111
Summary of the Reviewed Literatures. – 113
Theoretical Framework. – 122
Structural-Functionalist Approach. – 122
Levels 1, 2, 3 of Security Model. – 124
Harmonization of Theories. – 126
2.8.4 Role Expectation of Citizens. – 132
2.9 Historical Background and Objectives of Security. – 135
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Methodology. – 139
Research Design. – 140
Population of the Study. – 144
Research Area. – 145
Sources of Data Collection. – 145
Sample and Sampling Techniques. – 146
Research Instrument and Administration. – 146
Validity and Reliability of Test Instrument. – 147
Method of Data Analysis. – 147
4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS:
4.1 Introduction. – 148
4.2 Data presentation and Interpretation – 150
4.3 Testing of Hypotheses. – 150
4.3.1 Hypothesis I – 150
4.3.2 Evaluation of Hypothesis Qualitatively. – 152
4.3.3 Evaluation of Hypothesis I – 153
4.3.4 Hypothesis II – 163
4.3.5 Evaluation of Hypothesis II – 164
4.3.6 Hypothesis III – 174
4.3.7 Evaluation of Hypothesis III – 176
4.3.8 Hypothesis IV – 181
4.3.9 Evaluation of Hypothesis IV – 183
4.3.10 Discussion of Findings. – 205
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
5.1 Summary. – 212
5.2 Conclusions. – 218
5.3 Recommendations. – 220
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AI AND WARFARE-IMPLICATION FOR INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Abstract
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into military operations marks a significant evolution in modern warfare, posing both opportunities and challenges for international security. This study explores the implications of AI in warfare, focusing on its potential to transform military strategies, enhance operational efficiency, and the associated risks to global stability.
AI technologies, including autonomous weapons systems, predictive analytics, and cyber warfare capabilities, offer unprecedented advantages in terms of precision, speed, and decision-making. These advancements can enhance the effectiveness of defense mechanisms and reduce human casualties by performing high-risk operations. However, the deployment of AI in military contexts also raises critical ethical, legal, and security concerns. Autonomous weapons systems, for instance, pose dilemmas regarding accountability and compliance with international humanitarian laws. The potential for AI-driven cyber-attacks and misinformation campaigns can destabilize nations and undermine trust in international relations.
Furthermore, the AI arms race among leading nations could lead to a new form of geopolitical tension, as states strive for technological superiority. This competition might result in an escalation of conflicts, both conventional and unconventional, thereby increasing the risk of global instability.
The study emphasizes the need for comprehensive international regulations and ethical frameworks to govern the use of AI in military applications. Collaborative efforts among nations are essential to prevent the misuse of AI technologies and to promote transparency and trust. By addressing these challenges, the international community can harness the benefits of AI while mitigating the risks to global security.
This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on AI and international security by providing a nuanced analysis of the potential impacts of AI-driven warfare and offering policy recommendations to enhance global stability.
Chapter One:
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative technology with profound implications across various sectors, including healthcare, finance, transportation, and more recently, military and defense. AI’s potential to revolutionize warfare has sparked considerable debate among policymakers, military strategists, and international relations scholars. The integration of AI into military operations encompasses a range of applications, from autonomous weapons systems and cyber warfare to intelligence analysis and decision-making support. This paradigm shift in warfare capabilities necessitates a thorough examination of AI’s implications for international security.
AI-driven technologies offer significant advantages, such as enhanced precision, faster decision-making, and the ability to process vast amounts of data. However, the deployment of AI in warfare also raises numerous ethical, legal, and strategic concerns. Issues such as the potential for autonomous weapons to operate without human oversight, the risk of unintended escalation due to rapid AI-driven responses, and the vulnerability of AI systems to cyber-attacks pose significant challenges to global security.
The impact of AI on warfare is not limited to the technological domain; it also influences the geopolitical landscape. Nations investing in AI for military purposes may gain strategic advantages, potentially altering the balance of power and leading to new forms of arms races. Moreover, the proliferation of AI technologies among state and non-state actors can complicate efforts to regulate and control their use in conflict settings.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has rapidly transformed various sectors, including healthcare, finance, transportation, and entertainment, with its ability to process vast amounts of data, recognize patterns, and make decisions with unprecedented speed and accuracy. One of the most significant and controversial applications of AI is in the realm of warfare and international security. The integration of AI into military systems, known as autonomous weapons systems (AWS), has sparked intense debate among policymakers, military strategists, ethicists, and technologists.
AI in warfare encompasses a wide range of applications, from autonomous drones and robotic soldiers to sophisticated cyber-attack tools and intelligence analysis systems. These technologies have the potential to revolutionize military operations by enhancing the speed and precision of decision-making, reducing human casualties, and enabling new forms of warfare. However, they also pose profound challenges and risks, including ethical dilemmas, the potential for unintended escalations, and the erosion of established norms and laws of war.
The implications of AI in warfare extend beyond the battlefield. They have the potential to reshape the geopolitical landscape, influence the balance of power among nations, and affect global stability. As such, understanding the implications of AI for international security is critical for developing effective policies and strategies to manage these technologies responsibly.
1.2 Importance of the Study
Understanding the implications of AI in warfare is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, it provides insights into how AI can be leveraged to enhance national defense capabilities while identifying potential risks and vulnerabilities. Secondly, it informs the development of international norms and regulations to govern the use of AI in military contexts. Thirdly, it contributes to the broader discourse on the ethical and humanitarian aspects of AI in warfare, helping to shape policies that mitigate adverse outcomes. Finally, this study aims to equip policymakers, military leaders, and international organizations with the knowledge needed to navigate the complex landscape of AI-driven warfare.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objective of this study is to assess the implications of AI in warfare for international security. The specific objectives are:
To explore the current and potential applications of AI in military operations.
To analyze the strategic advantages and risks associated with AI-driven warfare.
To evaluate the ethical and legal challenges posed by the use of AI in conflict.
To examine the impact of AI on the balance of power and geopolitical stability.
To propose recommendations for international governance and regulation of AI in military contexts.
1.4 Research Questions
To achieve the objectives outlined above, the study will address the following research questions:
What are the key applications of AI in modern warfare, and how do they enhance military capabilities?
What strategic advantages do AI-driven technologies offer to military operations, and what risks do they entail?
How do ethical and legal frameworks address the challenges posed by AI in warfare?
In what ways does AI influence the balance of power and geopolitical dynamics among nations?
What governance mechanisms and regulatory measures are necessary to ensure the responsible use of AI in military settings?
1.5 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the implications of AI in warfare for international security, encompassing both theoretical and practical perspectives. It examines the current state of AI technology in military applications, explores future trends, and evaluates the potential impacts on global security. The study includes a review of existing literature, analysis of case studies, and discussions with experts in the fields of AI, military strategy, and international relations. While the primary focus is on state actors, the study also considers the role of non-state actors and the broader international community in addressing AI-related security challenges.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study have significant implications for policymakers, military leaders, and international organizations. By providing a comprehensive understanding of AI’s role in warfare, the study can inform the development of strategies to harness AI’s benefits while mitigating its risks. Policymakers can use the insights gained to craft regulations and agreements that promote the responsible use of AI in military contexts. Military leaders can leverage the study’s findings to enhance operational effectiveness and prepare for future conflicts. Additionally, international organizations can utilize the research to facilitate dialogue and cooperation on AI governance, ensuring that technological advancements contribute to global peace and stability.
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INSECURITY AND CHALLENGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA. CASE STUDY OF SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA,1999-2022
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background
Insecurity has emerged as a critical impediment to human development globally, with various regions facing distinct challenges. Nigeria, a country known for its rich cultural diversity and vast resources, has grappled with pervasive insecurity, significantly impacting the socio-economic well-being of its citizens. This study focuses on the challenges of human development in the context of insecurity, with a specific case study of the South-East region from 1999 to 2022.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The South-East region of Nigeria, comprising states such as Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo, has experienced a range of security challenges that have hindered human development. From ethno-political tensions to insurgency activities, the region has faced a complex interplay of factors affecting various aspects of life, including education, health, and economic opportunities.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The primary objectives of this research are:
To examine the nature and extent of insecurity in the South-East region of Nigeria from 1999 to 2022.
To analyze the specific challenges posed by insecurity on human development indicators in the region.
To assess the government’s response to insecurity and its impact on addressing human development challenges.
To propose recommendations for mitigating the impact of insecurity on human development in the South-East region.
1.4 Research Questions
What are the key manifestations of insecurity in the South-East region of Nigeria from 1999 to 2022?
How does insecurity in the region influence human development indicators, including education, health, and economic opportunities?
What are the existing government interventions to address insecurity in the South-East, and how effective have they been in improving human development?
What recommendations can be made to enhance human development in the face of persistent insecurity in the South-East?
1.5 Significance of the Study
Understanding the nexus between insecurity and human development in the South-East is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and the general public. This study seeks to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the multifaceted challenges posed by insecurity in the region, offering insights that can inform targeted interventions and policies aimed at fostering human development.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This research will primarily focus on the South-East region of Nigeria, covering the period from 1999 to 2022. The temporal scope allows for an examination of changes and trends in insecurity and human development indicators over the past two decades.
1.7 Structure of the Thesis
The thesis is structured into several chapters, each addressing a specific aspect of the research. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of relevant literature, exploring theoretical frameworks and empirical studies on the relationship between insecurity and human development. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology, detailing data collection methods, and analytical tools employed. Subsequent chapters present and analyze findings, discuss implications, and offer recommendations for addressing the challenges of human development in the context of insecurity in the South-East region of Nigeria.
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THE CHALLENGES OF KIDNAPPING ACTIVITIES ON NATIONAL SECURITY IN NIGERIA
Title page – – – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – ii
Approval Page – – – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement- – – – – – – – – v
Table of Contents – – – – – – – – – vi
List of Tables – – – – – – – – – x
List of Figures- – – – – – – – – – xi
List of Abbreviation – – – – – – – – xii
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – xiii
CHAPTER ONE:
1.0 General Introduction- – – – – – – – 1
1.1 Background to the Study – – – – – – – 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem- – – – – – – 6
1.3 Objectives of the Study- – – – – – – 7
1.4 Research Assumption – – – – – – – 8
1.5 Significance of the Study – – – – – – 8
1.6 Theoretical Framework – – – – – – 9
1.7 Scope of the Study – – – – – – – 13
1.8 Limitations of the Study- – – – – – – 14
1.9 Research Methodology- – – – – – – 15
References – – – – – – – – – 16
2.0 Literature Review- – – – – – – – 18
2.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 18
2.2 Concept of Kidnapping- – – – – – – 19
2.3 Kidnapping in Nigeria – – – – – – – 24
2.4 The Concept of National Security – – – – – 26
2.5 Kidnapping and National Security – – – – – 30
2.6 Summary – – – – – – – – – 33
References – – – – – – – – – 35
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Research Methodology – – – – – – – 38
3.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 38
3.2 Research Design- – – – – – – – 38
3.3 Area of Study- – – – – – – – – 39
3.4 Research Population- – – – – – – – 40
3.5 Sampling and Sampling Technique- – – – – 40
3.6 Instrument of Data Collection – – – – – 41
3.7 Validation of the Instruments- – – – – – 41
3.8 Method of Data Collection – – – – – – 42
3.9 Method of Data Analysis – – – – – – 42
3.10 Weakness of the Study- – – – – – – 42
3.11 Summary- – – – – – – – – – 43
References – – – – – – – – 44
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Data Presentation Analysis and Findings of the Study – 45
4.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 45
4.2 Respondents Profile – – – – – – – 46
4.3 Analysis of Data – – – – – – – – 49
4.4 Kidnapping in Nigeria – – – – – – – 50
4.5 Causes of Kidnapping in Nigeria – – – – – 54
4.6 Economic Factors as A Cause of Kidnapping In Nigeria – 55
4.7 Implication of Kidnapping on National Security – – – 61
4.8 Summary of Findings – – – – – – – 66
References – – – – – – – – 69
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Summary Conclusion and Recommendations- – – – 71
5.1 Conclusion- – – – – – – – – 71
5.2 Recommendations- – – – – – – – 73
Bibliography – – – – – – – – 74
Appendix – – – – – – – – – 79
Appendix II – – – – – – – – – 81
Appendix III – – – – – – – – 82
Bio Data – – – – – – – – – 85
| Serial | Title of Table | Page No |
| (a) | (b) | (c) |
| 1. | Distribution of respondents by location (states) | 47 |
| 2. | Profession of respondents | 48 |
| 3. | Opinion of respondents to the question whether Nigeria could be considered a kidnapping nation | 50 |
| 4. | Opinion of respondents to economic factor as a cause of kidnapping in Nigeria | 55 |
| 5. | Opinion of respondents to political instability as a cause of kidnapping in Nigeria | 58 |
| 6. | Answer of respondents on kidnapping as an adverse effect on national security | 61 |
LIST OF FIGURES
| Serial | Title of Table | Page No |
| (a) | (b) | (c) |
| 1. | Pie Chart Showing Percentage of Questionnaires Returned | 46 |
| 2. | Pie Chart Showing distribution of respondents by profession | 48 |
| 3. | Bar Chart Showing percentage of respondent on whether Nigeria | 51 |
| 4. | Bar Chart Showing percentage of respondent on economic factor as a cause of kidnapping in Nigeria | 55 |
| 5. | Bar Chart Showing percentage of respondent to political instability as a cause of kidnapping in Nigeria | 58 |
| 6. | Bar Chart Showing percentage of respondent on kidnapping as an adverse effect on national security | 62 |
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
NGOs – Non-Government Organisations
US – United States.
UK – United Kingdom
UN – United-Nations
MDG – Millennium Development of Nigeria
FGN – Federal Government of Nigeria
MEND – Movement for the Emancipation of Niger Delta
The study was set out with four objective: to determine the relationship between kidnapping and national security, to examine the various factors responsible for kidnapping in Nigeria, to determine the implication of kidnapping on national security, examine the challenges of curbing kidnapping in Nigeria and proffer ways of curbing the spread of the menace of kidnapping in Nigeria. The methodology used included the questionnaire as well as descriptive analysis of data presented. The study revealed that kidnapping has not only become a criminal phenomenon or an academic issue of discuss but also a major threat to national security. Kidnapping has been related in some countries to the crime of terrorism which shares a major threat to national security. Kidnapping in Nigeria, however considered new to the security or crime challenges to Nigeria, has taken a rather dramatic and worrisome position. This has been due to the dimension it took in its widespread in almost all the region of Nigeria. The causes of kidnapping in Nigeria have been grouped under economic and political factors. Economic in the sense of the low per capital income, poverty, unemployment to mention a few has been a major factor that has propelled the adoption kidnapping especially by youths. The political factors have been related to the political struggle for self for attainment and development of the Niger Delta region, as well as its adoption by political miscreants. In To this end, there is the need to put in place some measures in order to achieve the essence of national security as well as well human development some of those measure as recommended in this study include the adoption of developmental project for the youth of the society including the full implication of MDG project. Another measure to this the creating of an enabling factor for self employment of the youths of the country as well equipping in capacity and sophistication security personnel in to combat the kidnapping menace head on
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
All over the world societies have had to deal with criminality in various forms. Some of these forms of criminality have proved a great challenge to the society and stretched the debate on what crime is. The concept of crime has a long history in the civilization of man. Some religious communities see crime in the perspective of sin (Wikipedia Encyclopedia 2010). Some highlighted the issue of crime as sin in a mythological or legendary account of the origin of man. One of such is the Quran and Biblical records of the fall of man which tells the story of Adam and Eve’s eating the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden (King James Bible). There are disparities on the concept of crime with regards to people and places (Hulsman, 2000: 2). Nevertheless, when it bears its effect upon individuals and national security, it often becomes an issue of national concern. Some of these crimes have evolved through societal and legal processes giving some form of societal idiosyncrasies to some criminal acts.
One of such criminal act is kidnapping. Defining kidnapping poses a number of definitional problems in relations to a country’s legal and moral viewpoints as well as the availability of variances such as hostage taking and hijacking. However, in the context of this paper, Kidnapping in criminal law is an offence involving taking and conveying away a person against his or her will, either by force, fraud or intimidation (Wikipedia Encyclopesia, 2010). The issue of kidnapping however gained its early prominence in England when kids were abducted (EtymologyOnline, “Kidnap”). The word kidnapping thereby culminated from the phrase “kid nabbing” and was first recorded in the year 1673 (EtymologyOnline, “Kidnap”). Over the years, it has taken different forms with regard to the reason for carrying out such action by perpetrators.
Kidnapping is a global phenomenon which has been of great challenge to every government of affected countries. Some areas of concern to most government and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are the relationship of kidnapping to the issue of human trafficking and prostitution (SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking of Women and Chilren for Prostitution). In recent times, the crime of kidnapping has been linked to political intents where victims are kidnapped to push forward a political statement (Cambodian Law of Kidnapping and Trafficking). It has also been related to the issue of terrorism which has threatened global security (Osaghae, 2007: 19-22). Another reason for kidnapping which has recently gained prominence in Nigeria is kidnapping for ransom. Each and every one of these reasons has in one way or the other threatened the national security of countries where such crime is perpetrated. Its resultant effects have been the proliferation of arms and the parting of large sums of money to kidnappers from victims. This has therefore been a major threat to national security of any nation.
As a matter of importance to the survival of any nation, the issue of national security becomes paramount in the policies of government. This is as a result of the fact that the survival of the political, economic, social and diplomatic sovereignty of any nation depends highly on the national security of that nation (Yun, Hostage Taking and Kidnapping in Terrorism). The concept of national security is wide with different definitions; as there is no universally accepted definition of national security. Chief Olusegun Obasanjo defined National Security as “the aggregation of the security interests of all individuals, communities, ethnic groups, political entities and institutions which inhabits the territory of our great country Nigeria” (A Priority for U.S National Security and African Development).
A more comprehensive and all-emcompassing world-view definition of national security was made by President Barack Obama in the context of the US which can also be adopted by other nations. He defined national security as the security of the US, its citizens, partners and allies, a strong innovative and growing economy and an open international economic system that promotes opportunity and prosperity. He added that national security also encompass the respect for universal values at home and around the world and an international order that promotes peace, security, and opportunity through stronger cooperation to meet global challenges (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Assembly Resolution, 1976 ). The crime of kidnapping however threatens the very elements of this definition which is encompassed in national development which should therefore be of serious national concern.
In Nigeria, the crime of kidnapping gained prominence lately with the political strives of militants of the Niger Delta region of the South-South Nigeria (Barack, 2010). The kidnapping of expatriates in Nigeria threatens the very economic base of the nation which is oil exploration. To further push forward their political statement, the militants stepped up their criminal acts by kidnapping Nigerians of high political status or political figures. This eventually led to the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) taking decisive steps in checking the activities of militants which eventually resulted in the amnesty programme of the Late President Umar Yar Adua (Akpan, 2010). Unfortunately, the business of kidnapping spread to other areas of the country especially in the Eastern part of Nigeria and metamorphosed into a business mostly perpetrated by youths to make money.
Presently, the rate of kidnapping in Nigeria, in spite of the effort of police and other security agencies has been quite worrisome and poses a great challenge to the national security of the country. It has stalled business activities in some areas as well created fear in the minds of Nigerians. On the other hand, the perpetrators, who are mostly youths, are lost to such criminal activities instead of being gainfully employed as productive citizens for Nigeria’s development. The kidnapping of some journalists around Abia state was regarded as the height of the insensitivity of kidnappers (Egwemi, 2010). This has prompted the government of Nigeria to initiate strategies to check kidnapping in the country. The various states in Nigeria are initiating steps at establishing stringent laws to dissuade would-be kidnappers (Nigeria’s Latest Booming Business, AFP). There is however the need for government to initiate more strategies to curb the menace of kidnapping which threatens the national security of Nigeria.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Kidnapping took a rather dramatic dimension in Nigeria recently with its spread to other areas of the country from the Niger Delta region. This has therefore posed a serious challenge to Nigeria’s national security. Its impact on the nation has been quite enormous as it affects the socio-economic cum political lives of average Nigerians. This study in the quest of finding solution to the menace of kidnapping in Nigeria, seeks to answer the following question.
1.3 Research Questions
(1) What is the relationship between kidnapping and national security?
(2) What are the factors that are responsible for the increase of kidnapping in Nigeria?
(3) What are the effects of Kidnapping on Nigeria’s national security?
(4) What are the challenges faced in dealing with the problem of kidnapping in Nigeria?
(5) What are the roles of government in curbing the menace of kidnapping?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of this study therefore are:
(1) To determine the relationship between kidnapping and national security.
(2) To examine the various factors responsible for kidnapping in Nigeria.
(3) To determine the implications of kidnapping to Nigeria’s national security.
(4) To highlight the challenges in eradicating the problem of kidnapping.
(5) To propose in Nigeria measures that could be adopted to effectively check the growth of kidnapping in Nigeria.
1.5 Research Assumption
At the inception of democracy in Nigeria kidnapping cases were perpetuated by militants of the Niger Delta who were fighting for a common course of resource control. The capabilities of the militants to carry out attack especially in engagement with the military shows the level of security deterioration in the Niger Delta region. Likewise, the kidnapping of people which has bedevilled the society recently is also perpetuated by youths of the society.
This study therefore seeks to establish that if opportunities of good education, employment and an environment for self sustenance are provided for these youths, the problem of kidnapping will be easily curbed. It also seeks to establish that a proper training and equipping of the security agencies will go a long way in reducing crimes especially kidnapping incidences.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The issue of kidnapping could be relatively new to Nigeria compared to other countries. This therefore poses a great challenge to the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in its combating of crime and maintaining national security. This paper therefore will be beneficial to the government of Nigeria in putting in place machineries to fight against this menace. It will also be beneficial to security agencies who are directly or indirectly involved in curbing the problem of kidnapping in the country.
This study will also add to the existing literature and body of knowledge on the topical issue of kidnapping as it relates to the issue of national security especially in Nigeria. It will also be a reference material for subsequent research work.
1.6 Theoretical Frame Work
What this research will achieve in the theoretical concept of the iron law of responsibility. This law states that in a long run, those who do not use power in ways that society considers responsible will tend to lose it.
The implication of this theoretical constant is that those multinationals organization that are blind towards the provision of infrastructure and social amenities to the host communities will eventually have opposition at a long run.
A typical example is the agitation of the Niger – Delta situation which has affected the production of crude oil by multinational companies operating the region, which SHELL is a Victim.
There are so many social threats in the region like kidnapping, pipe lines destruction, militant killing among others.
The Niger Delta Situation
Education is not the cause of unemployment per se but the skill required in the relevant areas. The reason for this is that individuals in the past make the opinions and attitudes to the world of work and the vocation they intend to take up in the future. This dictates the discipline they intend to pursue to be skilled. The right of choice of vocations by individuals is now violated by parents most especially by mothers without measuring the ability of their choice with capability of those for whom they decide for. Individuals come out and get dissatisfied with the jobs available because they do not have the skills in the relevant areas; hence there is lack of job satisfaction.
Oladiti (1990) describes job satisfaction as the extent to which a person is satisfied by the content and the environment of work. Job dissatisfaction is the extent to which a person is displeased or frustrated by inadequate working conditions and tedious job content. What exists in the Niger Delta is job dissatisfaction because the youths want to work in the areas for which they have no skill. There is therefore lack of basic skill for employment and the youths are not ready to take challenging jobs.
In the area, three classes can be identified, the political elite who use their affluent life style to cause terrorism and kidnapping. There are those in absolute poverty who are unemployed and have no income or resource to maintain minimum healthy living. There are also those in primary poverty whose minimum income or resources in enough for physical maintenance or health. These last two groups of classes see the affluence of the political class who may not be better than them educationally but use state resource to their satisfaction.
At the context of national development, the core-periphery model can be applied to the region. The golden egg which makes the area a core is the oil exploration and exploitation. The oil and gas found in the region are propulsive forms capable of generating large scale employment. The hinterland of the Niger Delta or the rest of Nigeria is the periphery to the core. The model refers to the spatial division of Nigeria into an economic relationship. The core is oil-gas rich area of Nigeria and the periphery are the areas articulated to the need of the core area.
No special criteria have been used to define poverty nor is there data to buttress the level of poverty. However, the paper adopts the inadequate supply of money, inadequate educational opportunities and inequality as measures of poverty. Equally budget standards can be applied to the definition. The adoption of budget standards presumes that the adoption of N 10,000.00 minimum national monthly wage would be applicable. The use of these budget standards assumes that those who are employed would earn this amount. For those unemployed this minimum wage is a mirage and makes the absolute poverty applicable.
The inability of indigenes to be appointed is because of lack of relevant skills due to inadequate educational opportunities. For example if vacancy exists for a petroleum engineer and an electrical engineer surfaces, he stands unappointable because his skills is not in the relevant area. Similarly youths may be unwilling to take up jobs whose income cannot commensurate with the political class. Most people now look for easy means of making money, just as they perceive of the political class.
Acts of terrorism, insurrections and kidnapping have become synonymous with the Niger Delta youths because of connivance with some political groups which they see as alternative to means of livelihood and a route out of the poverty syndrome. By August 2007 relatives of politicians had fallen victims of kidnapping. For example the mother of Celestine Omehia, River State Governor was kidnapped. Madam Hansel a.k.a. Mama Yenogoa, mother of Speaker, Bayelsa State was kidnapped and a N50million ransom was demanded, Margaret Hill was also kidnapped (Odume, 2007). Mr. Odili’s nephew to former Governor of River State, Peter Odili was kidnapped and a ransom of N50 million demanded (Guardian, 2008) etc. recently, N 4 million was demanded for a kidnapped victim but was later found dead a day after N 2 million was paid for his release. A relative of a member of River State House of Assembly was kidnapped in River State and a ransom of N 440 million demanded was not fully met, it was partially met but not publicized. To the youths involved in this act of terrorism, it is a profitable “employment”.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study covered the period between 2005 and 2010. This is the period when there was a significant increase in kidnapping cases in Nigeria. This period witnessed the increase of the active militant struggle in the Niger Delta region of South-South Nigeria. The period also covers the recent spate of kidnapping in several parts of which included the kidnapping of journalists and some children in Abia state amongst other states. Some Kidnapping cases in Nigeria from 2005-2010 is at Appendix I.
This study will therefore be restricted to reference materials on the issue of kidnapping as it relates to the concept of national security from 1999 to 2010. Referrals on the issue of national security will also be based upon materials within this period.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
This study is impaired by the challenge of few materials available for reference on the topic of kidnapping in Nigeria. This has only been a new topic of discuss in the academic setting. Some information which would have been relevant for this research work was not disclosed by security agents who were interviewed.
1.9 Research Methodology
The data for the study were derived from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected through the use of questionnaires and oral interview with people considered relevant to the subject matter. Secondary data on the other hand were collected from newspapers, journals, other unpublished materials and the internet.
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PROLIFERATION OF SMALL ARMS. CASE STUDY OF PLATEAU STATE 43
CHAPTER ONE
Kano state was created on 27 May, 1967 from the then Northern Nigeria by the Federal Military Government. The state is located in North-Western Nigeria -11030’N 8030’E and borders Katsina State to the North-West, Jigawa State to the North-East and Bauchi and Kaduna State to the South. With an Area of 20,760 sq km. Population of approximately 10,000,000 people as at 2010. The major language is Hausa and religion predominantly Islam. The state has 44 Local Government Areas. The capital of Kano State is Kano.
The State is nicknamed the ‘center of commerce’. This is as a result of its historical records of economic and commercial activities. For the past 500 years within the Western Sudan sub region. It serves as Trans-Sahara trade route. As it still remain the second largest industrial center in Nigeria and the largest in Northern Nigeria.
The rate of economic and commercial growth in the state seems to be at a slow pace. Compared to Lagos State in the Southern part of Nigeria, which is the largest in Nigeria.
Business and commercial activities has taken a turn for the worse in Kano State as a result of various security threats occasioned by frequent killings, bombing and other violent crimes. This have impacted negatively on both the private and public sector of the economy. Since development can only be experience where there is peace and security.
The changing trend of threats to our National security is occasioned by the evolution and development of new factors in the internal and external environment of the Nigeria State. The security of the Nigerian state is aimed at protecting National integrity of the state and defending the essential values that constitute Nigerian identity.
The proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) has been given wide spread international focus in the post cold war era (Baxter, 2008). This is because these weapons have become the primary tools of ethnic and internal conflict in recent times. They have been the sources of violence, wars, conflict and crimes. It is a phenomenon that is destabilizing the peace, development and threatening the National security of sovereign States.
However, in nearly all conflict and crime, the diffusion of Small Arms and Light weapons particularly from industrialized nations to developing world has played a decisive role in escalating and intensifying the various threats to our national security. For example, the Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Kano state of Nigeria and the Nation in general, together with the activities of the Insurgent group of Boko-Haram, cannot be overlooked in this discourse. Secondly, the Proliferation of Small Arms its misuse generates a climate of fear and culture of violence that can last for generations. Insecurity affects decision-making, access to food, water and shelter, as well as mobility and commerce. Thirdly, Small Arms and Light Weapon Proliferation discourages foreign investment and damages the prospects of economic development. As its availability promotes violent solution to conflict.
Lastly, it increases the level of criminal acts in society ranging from; robberies, assassination, kidnapping, assaults and car hijacking etc.
Readily available and easy to use, Small Arms and Light Weapons have been the primary and the sole tools for violence in almost all parts of the federation of Nigeria. In the hand of irregular troops, bandits, groups, individuals and politician operating with scant respect for International and National Humanitarian Laws. Small Arms and Light Weapons are killers Weapons.
Globalization too is becoming an ever influencing architect of the new international security agenda. Its impact on the evolution of the relations among states is contradictory. It has facilitated the easy transportation of illegal Arms and Light Weapons from porous borders of bordering States like Chad and Niger Republic respectively into Kano State and Nigeria in general.
These Arms are precisely ‘small’. They circulate easily because they are small, easy to buy, easy to use, easy to transport and easy to conceal. Their proliferation exacerbates conflicts, sparks refugees’ flows, and undermines the rule of law and spawn a culture of violence and impunity. Thus poses threat to National and State security.
The statements of problem is the fundamental question that requires an answer, it is the most worrying issues that need to be properly examine and understood. The research problem is the fulcrum which the research objective and hypotheses resolve (Obasi, 1999). Under the statement of problem the researcher is expected to examine the ‘why’ related issues the researcher does not only describe as such but rather raise question that attract curiosity and expectation in terms of answer.
The problem of proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) has intensified in the country since the late ‘60s to the very end of the Nigerian-Biafran war and after. Since the priority then, of both parties was to win the war at all cost, this made for massive importation of arms and weapons into the country. Since in times of war the situation provide for local populace to find ways to survive at all cost. Locally made arms were produced (both rifles, pistols, and land mines and other explosives). Some of these arms, either imported or locally made are still in circulation till today. The problem of illicit production, sales, distribution and trafficking of light weapons have threatened human welfare and dignity in many parts of the country. Ranging from distortion in National economy due to violence, terrorism and assassination, to corruption of public officials especially the law enforcement agents, who in themselves are made to keep watch either on the borders and sea routes, on the spread of these arms.
Against this backdrop of proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in the country, the Nigerian Government has established a National commission on small arms, as required by the moratorium; it faces a daunting task of exerting control and reducing the circulation, availability and diffusion of Small Arms and Light Weapons through its borders and sea routes into the country.
The research problem centers on the extent at which the proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Nigeria, poses a threat to National Security, using Kano State of Nigeria as a case study. It is against this backdrop that the following questions will be addressed.
vi To analyze the ways in which SALW proliferation are threat to National Security.
A hypothesis is an idea or explanation for something that is based on known fact but which has not yet been proved. The more explicit and focused a research is, the easier it is to develop a hypothesis from it. A hypothesis formulates a relation, which then will be tested empirically. The hypothesis/Research question is the fundamental question about the study that requires an answer. It is a fundamental question because other specific research question derives from it. It also shapes or determines the research objectives. Obasi (1999) noted that research question is the most worrying issue or fact that needs to be properly examined and understood.
To focus the study more sharply, the following hypothesis/research question will be formulated for testing.
The research is intended to highlight, how Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) have exacerbated the various threat to National Security. It will also provide a framework for controlling regimes such as internal processes, National policy and Regional initiatives. These policy options will be provided by the study, to State, Sub-Regional, National and International organizations. Since the problem of SALW are not limited to any particular State.
The adoption of the multiple options that will be provided by this study will reduce and contain the various threats to our State and National Security in which Small Arms and Light Weapons are the weapons of choice.
The significance of study is, the value or contribution which the research is going to make to existing knowledge in terms of theoretical justification or relevance. Secondly, the solution the research is going to provide towards ameliorating a practical problem of concern.
Therefore, the study has theoretical and practical relevance. The theoretical relevance of this study is that it examines the role of the proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) in Kano State. By so doing, the study enriches the existing stock of literature or expands the frontiers of knowledge through its findings. Therefore serves as a source of data/material to those scholars who may be interested in further studies in this area.
Empirically or practically, this study will be of immense benefits to government, security advisers, defense advisers, policy makers and politicians, Regional and International institutions like ECOWAS, AU, UN, IMF and WB etc.
The study is timely, because the process is ongoing.
Considering the relationship between the proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) and various threats to our National Security, the geographical size of the country dictates that the scope be narrowed down. Therefore, the reference point for the research shall be various security threats orchestrated in Kano State of Nigeria.
It is also worthy of note that the true scope covered by the work is the period of 1967 to 2014. The choice of 1967 as the starting point is informed by the fact that the Nigerian civil war contributed to the proliferation of SALW into the country. The oil boom of the ‘70s led to the misappropriation of National funds, while the economic recessions of the ‘80s was also accompanied by a steep rise in robbery, political terrorism and the industrialization of corruption in all spheres of daily National life.
Coupled with these, is the fact that the ‘70s conceded with the period when sub-regional integration within the framework of ECOWAS began to gain momentum. It is partly as a result of this that free trade was adopted, along with this free trade, came in trade in both legal and illegal items and contrabands, partly of which are SALW.
The study shall rely solely on both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary sources include personal interview and questionnaire. While the secondary sources are; journals, magazines, periodicals, academic publications, internet, etc.
The effort to acquire primary materials involved discussing question in a focus group to obtain the views of participants. The process of content analysis involve investigating, recording and analyzing past event with the view to discovering generalizations that were significant in understanding of the past and the present in order to predict and deal with the issue under consideration.
To this end, documented literature was relied on. Documented literature was a major instrument of research, which are deemed to be able to stand alone if the need arises.
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