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GLAZED SURFACE AS A TOOL FOR ENHANCING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE DESIGN OF ULTRA-MODERN SHOPPING MALL, KATSINA.
ABSTRACT
Designing to make use of the climatic conditions of the site has always been a Challenge, especially for energy efficient building. The current investigation assesses how effective orientation, window-wall ratio and types of windows as a parameter for the reduction of annual cooling energy demand and the annual total energy consumption in commercial buildings. The research approach is experimental where study of commercial building in northwest Nigeria is analysed with parametric analysis. Simulation with Ecotect software applied is conducted. The results predict annual cooling load for the energy demand is 164.6kWh/m²yr; a reduction of 20.7kWh/m²yr when optimum orientation is used away from the actual. Again, results show that the total energy consumption increased when the window-wall ratio is also increased, in terms of annual cooling loads per unit floor areas, 60:70% window-wall ratio performed better. In addition, energy consumption in east and west axis is a little more (around 2-3%) it appears more obvious when the window orientation is east or west than north orientation. Energy consumption in South orientation corresponds to maximum annual cooling energy demand and it is minimum for north orientation. This fact-finding holds good. Annual energy consumption load for east and west orientation are almost equal (within 1% variation). Furthermore, in terms of energy efficiency, double glass with aerogel filled performs better than low-emissivity (Low-E) glass. For 90% increment in glazed area, the corresponding increase in energy consumption is 13.3 kWh/m2yr for single-clear, 11.1 kWh/m2yr for double clear,
8.7 kWh/m2yr for double low-e-clear, 5.3 kWh/m2yr for solar control reflective, and for 2.3 kWh/m2yr double glazing aerogel filled. From this study, it can be concluded that the influence and sensitivity of window-wall ratio on the total energy consumption are related to the orientation of outside window, and the glazing types of window. The influence of the factors can be regarded as reference mode for the window-wall ratio when designing commercial buildings. This indicates that if attention is paid to orientation and windowwall ratio as parameters during the design of a shopping malls, it would go a long way in ensuring that the design save cost to user. It recommended that Windows facing the east and west contribute to the greater effect on the energy consumption. Windows facing east or west should be avoided or the window-wall ratio of them should be limited, and external windows with suitable shading coefficient should be applied or movable sunshading for the windows should be set up. In consideration of the building energy efficiency design, the windows should be on the north façade or the south and ventilation and natural lighting need to be considered. Reducing the window-wall ratios of a commercial buildings in northwest Nigeria would provide significant energy saving benefits. The energy efficiency performance would be significantly increased by reducing the window-wall ratio for external windows of single glass compared to when it is double glass-aerogel filled.
Table of Contents.
DECLARATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. II CERTIFICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………………………………………………. IV DEDICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… V ABTSRACT……………………………………………………………………………………………………..VI LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………………………… XII LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………………………. XIV LIST OF PLATES ………………………………………………………………………………………….. XV ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………………………………………… XVI
1.0 BACKGROUND PROBLEM ………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………………………. 3 1.3 Justification …………………………………………………………………………………………. 4 1.4 Aim and Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 4 1.5 Research Questions ……………………………………………………………………………… 5 1.6 Limitation of Study ……………………………………………………………………………… 5 1.7 Scope of Study …………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………………….. 7
2.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………… 7 2.2 ORIENTATION ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7 2.3 WINDOW TO WALL …………………………………………………………………………………… 8
2.3.1 Building applications and importance of glazing ………………………………… 9
2.3.2 Components of the glazed surface …………………………………………………… 11
2.3.3 Different glazing types …………………………………………………………………… 12
2.3.3.4 Low-e single glazing ……………………………………………………………………… 14 2.3.3.5 Double clear glazing ……………………………………………………………………… 16
2.3.4 Solar control (reflective) glazing with coatings …………………………………. 26
2.4 GLAZING FRAME MATERIAL AND SPACER …………………………………………………….. 27
2.4.1 Aluminum ……………………………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4.2 Wood …………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
2.4.3 PVC (polyvinylchloride) ………………………………………………………………… 28
2.4.4 Fiberglass …………………………………………………………………………………….. 29
2.4.5 Spacer …………………………………………………………………………………………..30
2.4.6 Optical and thermal glazing properties …………………………………………….. 31
2.4.7 Solar radiation and spectrum ………………………………………………………….. 32
2.4.8 Solar Radiation through glazed surface ……………………………………………. 33
2.4.9 Visible transmittance (vt) ……………………………………………………………….. 34
2.4.10 Heat transfer mechanism through glazing ………………………………………… 34
2.4.11 Conduction …………………………………………………………………………………… 35 2.4.12 Convection …………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2.4.13 Radiation ……………………………………………………………………………………… 36
2.4.14 U-factor (insulating value) ……………………………………………………………… 36
2.4.15 Solar heat gains coefficient (shgc) …………………………………………………… 37
2.4.16 Insulation …………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
2.5 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BUILDINGS ………………………………………………………. 41
2.5.1 Selection of site …………………………………………………………………………….. 42
2.5.2 Built form and grouping of buildings ………………………………………………. 42
2.5.3 Building shape and size …………………………………………………………………. 43
2.5.4 Building’s orientation ……………………………………………………………………. 43
2.5.5 Solar radiation ………………………………………………………………………………. 43
2.5.6 Energy and building’s materials ……………………………………………………… 45
2.6 INSULATION USED AS A RESISTANCE TO HEAT FLOW ……………………………………… 50
2.6.1 Mechanism of thermal mass …………………………………………………………… 50
2.6.2 Insulation location …………………………………………………………………………. 52
2.7 DEFINITION OF SHOPPING MALL ……………………………………………………………….. 53
2.7.1 Shopping mall ………………………………………………………………………………. 54
2.7.2 Regional differences ……………………………………………………………………… 54
2.8 CLASSIFICATION OF SHOPPING MALL ………………………………………………………….. 56
2.8.1 Regional ………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
2.8.2 Super regional mall ……………………………………………………………………….. 57
2.8.3 Outlet mall …………………………………………………………………………………… 57
2.8.4 Dead malls …………………………………………………………………………………… 57
2.9 Shopping Trends in Nigeria ………………………………………………………………….. 58
2.9.1 Development of shopping trends in Nigeria ……………………………………… 58
2.10 CURRENT TRENDS …………………………………………………………………………………… 59
2.10.1 Shopping activities ………………………………………………………………………… 59 2.10.2 Shopping centers …………………………………………………………………………… 60
2.10.3 The Patterns of Shopping Activities ………………………………………………… 61
2.11 Shopping Standards ……………………………………………………………………………… 61
2.11.1 Shopping facilities ………………………………………………………………………… 62
2.12 FACILITIES REQUIRED IN THE SHOPPING MALL ………………………………………………. 63
2.12.1 Categories of shops ……………………………………………………………………….. 63
3.0 METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………………………………. 66
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………. 66 3.2 Dependent and independent variables ………………………………………………… 68 3.3 Research method ……………………………………………………………………………….. 68
4.0 RESULTS AND DATA PRESENTATION …………………………………………….. 69
4.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………. 69 4.2 RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70
4.2.1 Physical building characteristics ……………………………………………………… 70
4.2.2 Building descriptions …………………………………………………………………….. 71
4.3 MODELLING THE BASE CASE ……………………………………………………………………. 73
4.3.1 Weather profile; ……………………………………………………………………………. 73
4.3.2 Building envelop …………………………………………………………………………… 73
4.3.3 Effect of glazed area on annual cooling load (kwh/m2 yr.) ………………….. 76 4.3.4 Effect of glazed area on annual cooling load (kwh/m2 yr.). …………………. 77
5.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ……………………………………………………………….. 82
6.0 SITE REPORT ……………………………………………………………………………………… 83
6.1 Site Selection Criteria ………………………………………………………………………… 83
6.1.1 Site selection ………………………………………………………………………………… 83
6.2 THE PROJECT SITE …………………………………………………………………………………. 84 6.3 SITE ANALYSIS ………………………………………………………………………………………. 85
6.3.1 Site analysis; climate …………………………………………………………………….. 86
6.3.2 Site analysis; (views and noise) ………………………………………………………. 90
6.3.3 Site analysis (soil and vegetation) …………………………………………………… 91
6.4 Effects of Environmental and Climatic Factors On Building Design. ………………. 91
7.0 DESIGN REPORT ………………………………………………………………………………. 95
7.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………. 95 7.2 ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN ……………………………………………………………………… 95 7.3 FORM CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………………………….. 95
7.3.1 Site planning concept …………………………………………………………………….. 96
7.3.2 Ventilation and lighting concept. …………………………………………………….. 98
7.3.3 Landscaping …………………………………………………………………………………. 98
7.3.4 Plan concept ………………………………………………………………………………….99
7.4 BUILDING STRUCTURE ……………………………………………………………………………… 99
7.4.1 Form ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 99
7.4.2 Floor loading ………………………………………………………………………………. 100 7.4.3 Foundation …………………………………………………………………………………. 100
7.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATION ……………………………………………………………………….. 100
7.5.1 Sustainability ……………………………………………………………………………… 101
7.5.2 Space organization ………………………………………………………………………. 101
7.5.3 Circulation …………………………………………………………………………………. 101 7.5.4 Accessibility ……………………………………………………………………………….. 101
7.5.5 Maintenance ……………………………………………………………………………….. 102
7.5.6 Flexibility …………………………………………………………………………………… 103
7.5.7 Means of escape ………………………………………………………………………….. 103
7.6 SERVICES ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 103
7.6.1 Water supply ………………………………………………………………………………. 103 7.6.2 Power supply ………………………………………………………………………………. 103
7.6.3 Refuse disposal …………………………………………………………………………… 104
7.6.4 Waste water and sewage disposal ………………………………………………….. 104
7.6.5 Firefighting system ……………………………………………………………………… 104
7.6.6 Storm water drainage …………………………………………………………………… 104
7.7 MATERIALS …………………………………………………………………………………………. 104
7.7.1 Stabilized earth blocks …………………………………………………………………. 105 7.7.2 Reinforced concrete …………………………………………………………………….. 105
7.7.3 Steel ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 105
7.8 Building Finishes ……………………………………………………………………………… 105 7.9 Construction Methods ………………………………………………………………………… 105
8.0 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………….. 107
8.1 CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 107
8.1.1 Performance of the glazed surfaces. ………………………………………………. 108
8.1.2 Contribution to knowledge …………………………………………………………… 109 8.1.3 Further work ………………………………………………………………………………. 109
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………118 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………….110
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 BACKGROUND PROBLEM
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Architecture and the advancement of technology have led to the recent influx of heavily glazed commercial buildings all over the world of which Nigeria is no exception.
The availability and the use of energy in a building are pivotal to the building’s functionality within the confines of its purpose. However, if energy use in buildings is not control, can steadily led to costly waste to the building users and more importantly to through continuous release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission into the atmosphere leading to global warming and climate change (Oluwafemi,2015). Adeleke, (2010) report that the United Nations Environmental programme (UNEP) sustainable construction and Building Initiative (SCBI) noted that 30-40% of the global energy use comes from the commercial sector. This implies that achieving energy efficiency in buildings could mitigate the GHGs by 30-40%, which could have emanated from the commercial sector thereby saving the climate from the negative effect of these gases (Nwofe, 2014).
With the massive growth in new shopping malls construction coming up having front facade completely glazed in developing countries such as Nigeria and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done, GHGs emissions from buildings will be more than double in the coming years (Adeleke, 2010). These makes energy efficiency in buildings to be taking seriously by the governments in the developed world ( Oluwafemi , 2015).
The major and the single most significant end use of energy in Nigerian shopping malls has been attributed to space cooling, (ECN-UNDP, 2005). Another analysis of the building energy consumption in Nigeria commercial buildings gives a result that, the building envelope design, accounts for 40% of the peak cooling load respectively (Batagarawa, 2013). The substantial contribution by cooling is an indication that targeting this end-use will provide significant energy savings.
Energy consumption of up to 36% is attribute to materials making up the building fabric (Haase and Amato, 2006). Integrating active and passive design features in initial design phase by all professionals in a project can contribute in energy savings of between 50-
55% (Ochoa and Capeluto, 2008). A building’s envelope/facade is one component that when designed, can reduce energy use in the building. With the advent of glass technology, current trends of shopping mall buildings involve large glazed facades without any sustainable design principles such as, orientation external solar device etc. According to Pino (2012), the size of glazed area on a building highly influences the energy demand. A much glazed façade building might reach up to 155kWh/m2 a year on total cooling and heating demands. On the contrary, in a building with a window to wall ratio (WWR) of 20%, with external solar shading and selective glazing, demand might be as low as 25kWh/m2 a year. Sambo (2008), report that energy conservation and efficiency practices and technologies should be actively promoting to ensure rationalized consumption of energy in the country. To moderate these problems, demand for energy consumption needs to be minimized and sustainable approach needs to sold with consideration for better energy consumption and more importantly, reduction in GHGs emissions. Shopping mall building is identifying as a useful area for investigating energy consumption due to its contributions to GHGs emissions. According to (Adebamowo, 2014) numerous researchers have conducted well-documented studies on energy consumption in shopping mall buildings. However, little known about how glazed surface affect cooling load of a building in hot dry climate of Katsina. This identified gap thus formed the basis of conducting current investigation assesses orientation as a factor for reducing cooling loads in glazed commercial buildings in Katsina. Aim is to find out proportion at which the energy consumption increases with the glazed area depends upon, selection of glazing types, and their optimum orientation as a factors to be consider for cooling load reductions.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Energy efficiency in buildings is one of the fundamental steps towards reducing the factors that could lead to temperature rising and climate change and save on energy costs for the building users. In shopping mall buildings, private generator back-up power provision are methods of coping with the consistent power supply experienced in Nigeria (Oyedepo, 2012). The major and the single most significant end use of energy in Nigerian shopping malls has been attributed to space cooling, (ECN-UNDP, 2005). An analysis of the building energy consumption in Nigeria commercial buildings gives a r result that, the building envelope design, accounts for 40% of the peak cooling load respectively (`Batagarawa, 2013). (Adenikinju, 2005) postulate that small-scale enterprises spend as much as 25% of the initial investment on self-provision of a back-up generator. With the massive growth in new shopping malls construction coming up having front façade completely glazed in developing countries such as Nigeria and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done, GHGs emissions from buildings will be more than double in the coming years (Adeleke, 2010).
In the wake of the worsening energy crisis burdening Nigeria now, the challenges that these glazed façade buildings poses cannot be met in terms of the provision of energy efficient whiles reducing annual cooling loads. Generally, buildings in the hot/dry with extensive glazed surface consume high levels of energy. In what proportion the energy consumption increases with the glazed types depends upon, selection of glazing area, and their optimum orientation, from cooling point of view. This is the subject matter of the present investigation. The aim is to find out how effective is window to wall ratio is a factor to be consider for cooling load reductions.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
There were several investigations about overall energy saving methods for buildings and there is various investigation about energy simulations focusing on numerous energy saving measures. However, little known about how glass-curtain wall affect cooling load of a buildings in hot-dry climate of Katsina. Effect of climatic conditions, glazings types, glazed areas, and orientations on annual energy consumption will be analysed.
To design any building, it is important to consider glazing as an aesthetic satisfying view both toward outside and inside of the building, for daylighting, fresh air and even for the occupants’ psychological aspect. These criteria, however, were consider as traditional purposes.
Thus, investigation will help to get better awareness about relationship between the buildings’ and climatic condition. More importantly, investigation will be able to get reasonable results, as it depends on using computer simulation program.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim is to find out proportion at which the energy consumption increases with the glazed area and their optimum orientation as a factors to be consider for cooling load reductions. In order to minimize the amount of energy that a building consumes in shopping mall.
The research intends to achieve the aim through the following objectives
To identify different glazed area and their optimum orientation, used for energy conservation within the hot/dry climate of Katsina
To design a base-line model for testing the performance of the glazed surfaces and their optimum orientation.
To calculate energy and cost savings that can be achieve by applying each glazed surfaces and their optimum orientation, identify most suitable within the hot-dry climate of Katsina.
To propose a design of an energy efficient ultra-modern shopping mall by applying most suitable glazed area with best orientation for hot-dry climate of Katsina.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research will answer the following questions:
To what extent can the glazing area affect energy and cost saving to users?
What proportion the energy consumption increases with the glazed area?
1.6 LIMITATION OF STUDY
Several limitations have been encounter in the conduct of this investigation, methodology limitations encountered during the simulation stage: Climatic data errors, erratic power supply, Validation of software, Cost of software, training, Researcher’s inexperience and other human error.
The researcher complied with all research ethics especially the confidentiality on information obtained.
1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this investigation covers electricity conservation in shopping mall building in hot-dry climate of Katsina, the capital city of Katsina State.
Energy storage is access as an energy conservation mechanism in shopping mall building.
Shopping mall buildings consume 40% portion of total energy globally and in Nigeria (Adeleke, 2010).
Shopping mall building are chose as opposed to residential or industrial buildings due to its contribution to GHGs (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and methane) (CO2, CO, CH4) emissions, industry is few, mostly due to the energy crisis within the nation and the expensive nature of cooling appliance (electrical) in commercial buildings.
Finally, investigation will develop a theoretical solutions as well as design solutions for not just cost-effective shopping malls, but also healthier and more productive living environment.in hot-dry climate of Katsina.
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