HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ABAKALIKI

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HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ABAKALIKI

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In recent times, population increase, man’s activities associated with modern lifestyles and consumption patterns have resulted in the generation of huge volumes of different types of wastes [1]. Although, nature in constant cycling of matter and energy reuses its waste, man has developed a series of synthetic materials that are difficult to recycle. Such synthetic materials pile up, disrupt the natural equilibrium, and create economic, ecological and health risk for man and his environment. Consequently, public concern over the waste management and the pollution challenges associated with waste generation have attracted significant attention and a great deal of research has been conducted to evaluate appropriate waste treatment options, so as to minimize environmental pollution and maximize resource recovery. Medical waste are materials that are produced in the course of health protection (immunization), medical treatment and medical research laboratories [2]. However, the principal generators of medical waste (MW) are hospitals and clinics, particularly those providing acute services including; operating theatres, maternity ward, accident & emergency, mortuary, intensive care, isolation wards, pharmacy and pathology laboratories [3-4]. The growth of these medical sector around the world over the last decade combined with an increase in the use of disposable medical products has contributed to the large amount of medical waste being generated [5-6]. The generation of wastes is not the contention but the disposal of generated wastes.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has advocated that medical wastes should be treated as special wastes [7]. Also, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has defined this waste as hazardous [8]. This is because medical waste may play an important role in the transmission and intensification of disease [9-10]. It has been reported [11-12] that if medical wastes is not handled appropriately, it could cause injury, infection and environmental pollution. A study [13] has shown that priority contaminants commonly associated with medical wastes that are of significant importance with respect to human health risks based on environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and emission rate are: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH); polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB); particulate matter (PM10); sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Potentially toxic elements that are of greatest concern are: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cd), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). These PTEs as well as their compounds have been widely used in the medical field and eventually end up in the environment as wastes. For example, arsenic trioxide (Al2O3) has been used over the years for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukamia and also used in the preparation of Thomas Fowler’s solution used empirically to treat a variety of disorders [15]. Cadmium is a component of dental instrument, while Cr is used in the electroplating of medical instruments, Zn is used in galvanizing of medical instruments and Hg is used in thermometers [16]. In addition, surgical stainless steel (an alloy of Cr, Mo and Ni) is a type of steel well-suited for making surgical instruments because they are strong, easy to clean and sterilize; and corrosion-resistant [17].

Obviously, the presence of toxic substances in MW represents a significant health and environmental risk; particularly in developing countries of the world where wastes are poorly managed [18-20] .Of particular concern is the possible infection of those who are directly exposed to these wastes and the emissions emanating therein. People in this category are basically health workers, patients and waste handlers. It is important to note that emitted toxic substances have the potential to travel long distances [21] and can also enter the human body through any of the exposure pathways (oral, inhalation and dermal) [22]. Despite the environmental and health risk associated with poor medical waste, studies [23-26] has shown that current medical waste management in Nigeria is poor and without legislation. These studies revealed that dominant disposal methods are: open burning, burial and unregulated incineration. Literature survey shows that no study has investigated MW management in ACT, thus, the indispensability of this study as a result of low-level health facilities in ACT. This is an original research aimed at determining, waste generation rate; collection, and disposal methods. The paper will also explore the environmental and health risk associated with these practices and suggests methods with less risk.

In most developing countries like Nigeria, the problems associated with hazardous waste management are more acute than in the developed countries (Zerbock, 2003). Today in rural Nigeria, the rate at which waste is being generated is about 70% as compared to the total rate of its disposal which is 30% (Edu, 2003). No doubt Edu (2003) argued that waste could be anything which may not be directly useful or needed by man. Lack of financial resources and infrastructure to deal with hazardous waste creates a vicious cycle; lack of resources leads to low quality of service provision which leads to fewer people willing to pay for services, which in turn further erodes the resource base and so on (Kuniyal et al. 1998; Zerbock, 2003).

The problem is further complicated by the rapid growth in population which has influenced an increase in the volume of waste being generated and also on waste retrieval/disposal services in municipal areas. However, more often than not, an increase in population is not matched with an equal increase in service and revenue for the local municipalities for waste management (Zerbock, 2003).

According to Ezema (2009), wastes are useless, unwanted and discarded materials.’ Douglas (2004) corroborates Ezema’s stance and argues that ‘waste is material which arises from animal and human life and activities and is discarded as useless and unwanted items. Hazardous waste can also be referred to wastes from households, municipal services, construction debris and agricultural activities. This also includes non-hazardous, non-liquid wastes from institutions and industries (RA 9003). According to the World Bank (2001), waste generation is greatly influenced by a country’s development.

Generally, the more economically prosperous a country is, the more waste it generates per capita but the factor that seem to bridge the gap between waste generation and it’s resultant effect is the method or efficiency of waste management strategy adopted by such country. A typical example could be seen when comparing the waste situation in developed countries like; Britain, United States of America, Canada where there exist much

economic activities that generate more waste but with a corresponding well organized waste management system compared to the situation in developing countries like; Nigeria, Ghana and Cameroun with their steady increase in population and a corresponding increase in their rate of waste generation from industrial and human activities but without an efficient waste management system.

It is realized that the waste situation in developed countries are much better than that of the developing countries irrespective of the volume of waste they generate due to the

waste management strategy they practice or employ. Hazardous waste management could be defined as the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, management, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of hazardous waste in a manner that is in accord

with the best principles of public health, economic, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environment consideration that is also responsive to public attitudes (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). Hazardous waste management (SWM) pertains to the control of the generation, storage, management, transfer and transportation, processing and disposal of hazardous waste in a fashion that is in accordance to societal and economic needs while at the same time compliant to environmental standards and principles (RA 9003).

Hazardous waste is a telltale sign of how citizens’ lifestyles change as a result of economic development. Furthermore, the increase of waste generation in the different rural households in Abakaliki is indicative of its degree of rurality. In cities, where standard of living is high, there is usually a higher waste output compared to rural areas. Household hazardous waste management (MSWM) continues to be a major challenge for local authorities in rural areas throughout Nigeria. This challenge is particularly important for the developing

countries. The available statistics shows that, although the municipal hazardous waste generation in the developing countries is still low per-capita compared to that in the developed countries, the developing countries account for more disproportionately high share of the world’s hazardous waste generation relative to their share of world’s income (Afroz et, al. 2009).

Moreover, from a dynamic point of view, the municipal hazardous waste management in developing countries is predicted to face a great challenge in the future owing to their rapid population and economic growth. Empirical analyses using macroeconomic data indicates that the per capita generation of hazardous waste is at least 0.3-0.4 kilograms per day even for the poorest people. In general, a one percent increase in population is associated with a 1.04 percent increase in hazardous waste generation, and a one percent increase in per capita income

is associated with a 0.34 percent increase in total hazardous waste generation (Afroz et,al. 2009).

Irrespective of the fact that most of the developing countries are still in the early stage of economic development, it is generally expected that the challenges of hazardous waste generation and management could be avoidable in such countries considering that most cities in developing countries spends significant portions of their municipal revenue on waste management (Osumanu, 2007; Thomas-Hope, 1998; Schubeler, 1996 and Bartone, 2000; Zhuang et al., 2008), but they are often unable to keep pace with the scope of the problem.

Senkoro (2003) indicated that for many African countries, only less than 30% of the rural population has access to proper and regular garbage removal (Altaf and Deshazo, 1996). The current practice of collecting, processing and disposing municipal hazardous wastes is also considered to be least efficient in the developing countries. The typical problems are ―low management coverage and irregular management services, crude open dumping and burning without air and inefficient water pollution control, the breading of flies and vermin, and the mishandling and uncontrolled informal waste picking or scavenging activities (Bartone, 1995).

Poor hazardous waste management in the developing countries is a major threat to public health and environmental quality, and reduces the quality of life, particularly for the poorer residents in rural areas. One of the principal reasons for the inefficient SWM systems in the developing countries is said to be based on their financial misappropriation, mismanagement and constraint, as SWM is given low priority in the developing countries budget, except in few large cities like Johannesburg, Abuja, Soweto, Pretoria, Tunis, Cairo,

Accra etc.

In Nigeria, hazardous waste problem started with the rapid increase in rural growth resulting partly from the increase in population and more importantly with the increase in its immigration status (Egunjobi, 1996), no town in Nigeria can boast of haven found a lasting solution to the problem of filthy and huge piles of hazardous waste, rather the problem continues to assume monstrous dimensions (Okpala, 2002). To rural dwellers,

public hygiene starts and ends in their immediate surrounding and indeed the city would take care of itself.

The situation has so deteriorated that today the problem of hazardous waste has become one of the nation’s most serious environmental problem. Waste management in Abakaliki rural areas is becoming an increasing problem daily and a complex task. The Abakaliki state waste management agency (ESWAMA) was established to develop and implement policies on the

management of solid and liquid wastes that would promote the health and well being of the people. To this end, ESWAMA has the responsibility to ensure effective and efficient management, removal, treatment and disposal of all kinds of wastes.

It also has a mandate to check the illegal dumping of refuse at roadsides, enclosures, streams in neighborhoods and in drains. The agency is further empowered to prosecute defaulters of sanitation laws, while providing waste management facilities. The state’s sanitation laws compel residents to cooperate with ESWAMA in efforts to keep the environment clean. This they are required to do by cleaning up their environment, bagging wastes and disposing them at nearby designated dump-sites. The residents are also required to pay approved sanitation rates through designated banks in various zones.

In Abakaliki, human activities have generated waste in various forms in gaseous (abattoirs), liquid and solid. These wastes have often been discarded because they were all considered as negative value goods. The more prevalent method of disposal of these wastes have been to first collect them from their source and then burn them in a landfill site or throw them in the surrounding deep erosion gullies in the state.

However, the steady increase of landfill site, deposition in the gullies, and waste generally has caused a lot of havoc to the potable water being extracted from downstream and ground water. In most parts of Abakaliki communities, there are no public facilities for disposing refuse within reasonable distance, dump sites or waste bins are non-existent and in locations where dumpsites are made available, they are observed to overflow with refuse within few hours of disposal due to the rate of waste generated by populace within the area constituting health hazards.

However, the Government of Abakaliki State of Nigeria adopted different methods of hazardous waste disposal. One time, the incinerator machines were used and recently hazardous waste conversion vehicles are used and yet hazardous waste still constitute a major health hazard in the Abakaliki communities. It is believed that the refuse disposal vehicles are insufficient to cover their designated areas. The areas that are more susceptible to the endemic problem are areas

within the Abakaliki rural areas such as Nsuka, Trans-Ekulu, Obolo market, market, Obiagu, Achara layout owing to the highly populated nature of the areas.

Some people who were recently arraigned in the Environmental Court for waste disposal related offences claimed to lack knowledge of where and how to properly dispose or manage their wastes.

In recent times, Hazardous waste management problem has become a major concern in an industrialized developing country, like Nigeria and in Abakaliki in particular, considering the high growth-rate of population and industrialization in the city, It’s in this regards that this study seek to investigate and examine the current state of the waste management strategy being employed by the waste management agency (ESWAMA) in the study area (Abakaliki metropolis) to actually ascertain the state of waste management in the area to help the government and planners take adequate steps and decisions towards ensuring an improved standard of living the health safety within the study area.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Many rural areas in Nigeria and Abakaliki state lack effective waste management systems. As a result, most rural households resort to the haphazard dumping, burning and/or burying of hazardous wastes. (Agunwamba, Egbuniwe and Ogwueleka 2003). Agunwamba (1998) stated that the problem of waste management in Nigeria is due to the absence of public policy, enabling legislation and an environmentally stimulated and enlightened public. Appropriate policy and institutional mechanism for implementation of waste management strategies are critical for sustainable waste management. Where the policy is poor or the public is not properly sensitized or there are no proper enforcement of laws and regulations, waste management is a problem or challenge.

Household hazardous waste management in Abakaliki is constitutionally the responsibility of the third tiers of government, that is, the local government council. Financial, material and human resources that have been committed to waste management by this tier of government have not matched this responsibility.

This is evident by the poor management of many landfill sites and soil and groundwater pollution due to often mixing of household, industrial and toxic waste (UNEP, 2000). In view of the environmental situation described above in many rural areas, many Nigerian cities have been described as dirty, unsanitary, and aesthetically displeasing in the world (Mabogunje, 1996). It is evident that management of hazardous waste remains a key issue to be addressed in this country.

In Armenia, management, transportation, treatment and disposal of household hazardous waste have been neglected for several years because of inadequate resources. The existing institutions are inadequately equipped in terms of skills and capital resources to effectively manage the waste problems (NEAP, 1998). Waste management and transportation activities are quite poor organised.

Waste generation is primarily a function of people’s consumption patterns and thus is based on their socioeconomic characteristics. Low-income groups and the very poor typically generate low volumes of organic waste. In some abakaliki little food to go around and the parts that are not consumed by the household members are used for the domestic animals or composted to amend the garden soil. Those who are somewhat better off may share leftovers as well as old clothing with those more needy (Bernstein 1999).

The World Bank poverty and social impact assessment for Cashmere Sector Improvements, 2004, further stated that waste generation is also influenced to an important degree by people’s attitudes toward waste: their patterns of material use and waste handling, their interest in waste reduction, the degree to which they separate wastes, and the extent to which they refrain from indiscriminate dumping and services. Attitudes may be positively influenced through awareness building campaigns and education about the negative aspects of inadequate waste management with regard to public health and environmental conditions, and the value of effective disposal. Such campaigns also should inform people of their responsibility as waste generators and of their rights as citizens to adequate hazardous waste management services (Kudat, 1988).

Refuse dumps have now taken over roads that link to various parts of Nsuka especially in Abakaliki state. Some parts of Abakaliki state always have to contend with the sight of human and cattle excreta, and refuse dumps that have almost taken over the roads. Despite the efforts put in by Abakaliki state government in managing waste in rural area, it still faces the waste management problem. A major premise responsible for the poor management of waste in the Rural areas is the absence of a well defined management structure. Therefore the research problem seeks to assess the way waste in Rural areas is managed towards providing a better way of hazardous waste management and disposal, and proposing an institutional framework that will help the government agency for a better hazardous waste management structure.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1. To examine hazardous waste reuse and recycling in Nigeria.

2. To identify the household hazardous waste characteristics and management in rural communities in Abakaliki state.

3. To examine the refuse disposal behaviours of residents in abakaliki.

4. To examine the existing Nigerian policies and regulations on waste management

5. To identify the problems of hazardous waste management in Nigeria.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

1. What are the characteristics of households in rural communities in Abakaliki state towards hazardous waste management?

3. Does residents in abakaliki show negative attitude towards refuse disposal?

4. Are there existing Nigerian policies and regulations on waste management?

5. What are the problems of hazardous waste management in Nigeria?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

H0: Residents in abakaliki show negative attitude towards refuse disposal.

H1: Residents in abakaliki show positive attitude towards refuse disposal.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The scope of waste management has evolved throughout history with changes in socioeconomic conditions, city structures, and the environment. Today, waste infrastructure that is well planned and operated supports community sanitation and related activities. Effective waste management is essential for nutrient recycling and for maintaining ecosystem integrity. It is also important for:

Improving the environment through proper drainage and disposal of wastewater;

Preventing floods through removal of rainwater;

Preserving receiving water quality. The hazardous waste treatment process facilitates the achievement of water quality objectives. In addition to nutrient recycling, advanced treatment of wastewater often includes associated unit processes which support the optimization of resource use. Some of these unit processes include the conversion of sludge into various beneficial by-products, and the process of extracting thermal energy from waste and wastewater. In addition, the waste management system can be used as a conduit for optical fibre cables and other communications infrastructure.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study will cover the general and management of hazardous waste in rural area. The scope of the study cover some selected communities in Abakaliki state.

1.8 LIMITATION OF STUDY
Financial constraint– Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data management (internet, questionnaire and interview).
Time constraint– The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Wastes : Wastes may be defined as useful materials but are in places where they are not needed. A discarded empty beer bottle or empty bottled water container may be useful to a ‘zobo’ seller. Though these empty containers are discarded because their owners found them useless, they can become a resource to another person.

Hazardous waste: Hazardous waste is any useless, unwanted and discarded material, resulting from normal community activities which have lost its original purpose and usage with insufficient liquid content to be free flowing (American Public works Association, 1975; WHO, 1977, West African Health Examination Board-WAHEB, 1991; Obionu, 1999; and Okereke, 2000).

Waste Management: Waste management is the management, transportation, and disposal of garbage, sewage, and other waste products. Waste management encompasses management of all processes and resources for proper handling of waste materials, from maintenance of waste transport trucks and dumping facilities to compliance with health codes and environmentalregulations(http://www.buisnessdictionary.com/definition/waste management, 2013).

Reuse”: Reuseis simply the act of using an item again and again in its original form. Reusing items eliminates the need to reprocess materials (whether it is for disposal or for recycling).

“Recycle”: “Recyclemeans to give old or used things a new lease of life, by making new things out of the old materials. The “Reduce Reuse Recycle” hierarchy as seen in figure 2.2 below was developed in order to minimize waste as well as conserve natural resources and extract the most out of already produced goods. The Three ‗R‘s, “Reduce Reuse Recycle”, are aligned into a hierarchy to illustrate the most effective plan of action for waste management practices. Reducing consumption and waste production is the first and most effective step toward producing less waste (consuming less automatically produces less waste). However, there are times when consumption is necessary. In these cases, reuse as much as possible before recycling any remaining materials.

Combustion: Combustion is the controlled burnings of waste in a designated facility to reduce its volume and

in some cases, to generate electricity. Combustion is an I.S.W.M. option for waste that cannot recycle or

composted argues Tim (2008) and is sometimes selected by communities where landfill space is limited.

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